The reception of the novel
Patria
and the memory of terrorism in Spain:
coverage, treatment, and assessment in the national press and in the
regional Basque press
La recepción de la novela Patria y la memoria del terrorismo en España:
cobertura, tratamiento y valoración en la prensa nacional y regional vasca
doxa.comunicación |
nº 36, pp. 43-64
| 43
January-June of 2023
ISSN: 1696-019X / e-ISSN: 2386-3978
How to cite this article:
Labiano Juangarcía, R.; Hernández Ruiz, V. and Urquía Uriaguereca, Í. (2023). e reception of the novel
Patria
and the memory of terrorism
in Spain: coverage, treatment, and assessment in the national press and in the regional Basque press.
Doxa Comunicación
, 36, pp. 43-64.
https://doi.org/10.31921/doxacom.n36a1682
Roncesvalles Labiano Juangarcía
. She holds a PhD from the University of Navarra with a thesis on the representation
of
ETA
victims. She teaches Oral and Written Expression, Genres and editing of newspapers and magazines and Authors’
Genres in the Faculty of Communication at the University of Navarra (UNAV). She is co-author of the book
Relatos de
plomo. Historia del terrorismo en Navarra. La sociedad contra ETA
and several articles and book chapters on
ETA
terro
-
rism and its cultural representation.
University of Navarra, Spain
[email protected]
ORCID: 0000-0002-4649-884X
Victoria Hernández Ruiz
. Extraordinary Doctorate Award in Humanities, Master’s Degree in Teaching and Master’s
Degree in Humanities. She studied German Philology. She coordinates the Degree in Humanities at the Universidad
Francisco de Vitoria where she teaches Style, Ancient and Medieval Literature and Modern Literature, as well as Great
Books in the Master’s Degree in Humanities. She belongs to the Research Group “Imagination and possible worlds”
from which she develops the Research Project
Mundos posibles poéticos: fundamentos losócos, teoría y prácticas
hermenéuticas
, of the call 2022 in which this publication is framed.
University Francisco de Vitoria, Spain
[email protected]
ORCID: 0000-0002-9562-0952
Íñigo Urquía Uriaguereca
. Master’s Degree in Humanities. Degree in Advertising and Public Relations. Lecturer in
Introduction to University Studies and Audiovisual Creativity in the Faculty of Communication at the Francisco de
Vitoria University. PhD student in the Advertising and Audiovisual Communication programme at the Complutense
University of Madrid. He belongs to the Research Group “Imagination and Possible Worlds” from which he develops he
Research Project
Mundos posibles poéticos: fundamentos losócos, teoría y prácticas hermenéuticas
, of the 2022 call.
University Francisco de Vitoria, Spain
[email protected]
ORCID: 0000-0002-0313-2709
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44
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January-June of 2023
The reception of the novel
Patria
and the memory of terrorism in Spain: coverage, treatment, and assessment...
ISSN: 1696-019X / e-ISSN: 2386-3978
doxa.comunicación
1. Introduction
e novel
Patria
(Fernando Aramburu, 2016) (English language version
Homeland
(2019), translated by Alfred J. MacAdam),
about terrorism in the Basque Country, has become an editorial landmark and a certied best-seller. It has achieved numerous
accolades, including the
Premio Nacional de Narrativa
[National Literature Prize for Narrative] (2017),
Premio Euskadi de
Literatura
[Basque Prize for Literature] (2017),
Premio Francisco Umbral
[Francisco Umbral Award] (2017) and
Premio Nacional
de la Crítica
[National Critics Prize] (2017). It remains top of the best-seller charts in Spain ve years after its publication, has been
translated into over thirty languages, and has recently been adapted into a television series (HBO, 2020).
However, the ‘
Homeland
phenomenon’ has transcended editorial and cultural barriers and made its way into current social and
political debate. Beyond literary acclaim, it has received praise from notable gures such as the former Spanish Prime Minister,
Mariano Rajoy, as well as from ETA victim associations, who are grateful to see how it has helped ll what they consider, despite
some eorts to the contrary, to be a void in the collective memory (Labiano, 2020). Nevertheless, it has also received harsh
criticism, mostly expected, from the radical nationalist front together with those known as the ‘third space’, who usually identify
with the Basque Government’s stance on peace and coexistence since 2012 (De Pablo, 2016).
Homeland
has found itself in the middle of a debate known as the ‘battle of the narrative’ which in reality, is a ght to reconstruct
the memory of terrorism, which debates the impression this traumatic period has left on the majority of Basque and Spanish
society (Dominguez Iribarren, 2012). In this ‘battle’, several paradigms or political narratives are usually recognised. However, it
is important to bear in mind that we are not talking about enclosed spheres, and that rather there are points of contact between
them and standpoints which occupy the middle ground.
To begin with, there is a narrative of the victims, who consider ETA as the main terrorist organisation principally responsible
for the political violence experienced in Spain. is is centred around its victims, abandoned for so long, praising them for not
Abstract
:
Fernando Aramburu’s novel
Patria (Homeland
in English) (2016),
about terrorism in the Basque Country, has transcended ction and
has entered public opinion, becoming part of the conversation on
current Spanish political and social aairs. Based on studies that relate
journalism and memory, our aim is to oer a map of the reception of
the novel in the national and regional Basque press, to examine to what
extent there is a relationship between the coverage, treatment and
assessment in the press and the territorial and ideological scope of the
newspapers, in order to observe the contribution of the press to the
collective memory of terrorism in Spain. e study was carried out on
167 journalistic pieces by means of a content analysis.
Keywords
:
Patria; reception; terrorism; memory; press.
R
esumen
:
La novela Patria, de Fernando Aramburu (2016), sobre el terrorismo en
el País Vasco, ha trascendido la cción y se ha introducido en la opinión
pública, entreverándose en la conversación sobre la actualidad política
y social española. Partiendo de los estudios que relacionan periodismo
y memoria, nuestro objetivo es ofrecer un mapa de la recepción de la
novela en la prensa nacional y regional vasca, examinar en qué medida
hay relación entre la cobertura, tratamiento y valoración en prensa y
el ámbito territorial e ideológico de las cabeceras, para, de ese modo,
observar la contribución de la prensa a la memoria colectiva sobre el
terrorismo en España. El estudio se ha realizado sobre 167 piezas perio
-
dísticas mediante un análisis de contenido.
P
alabras clave
:
Patria; recepción; terrorismo; memoria; prensa.
Received: 12/05/2022 - Accepted: 21/06/2022 - Early access: 25/07/2022 - Published: 01/01/2023
Recibido: 12/05/2022 - Aceptado: 21/06/2022 - En edición: 25/07/2022 - Publicado: 01/01/2023
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45
nurturing an escalation of violence. ey recognise the existence of other violent acts, but deny and try to downgrade the idea
of a ‘conict’ between two equal sides; a framework which served ETA to justify its acts. is narrative has been associated with
political groups on the extreme right of the spectrum, hostile to Basque nationalism. However, it also includes initiatives by
victims which are unrelated to partisan inuences. Perhaps the most pertinent example is the Centre for the Memory of Victims
of Terrorism with several administrations of diering political aliations involved in its patronage.
e other extreme is the narrative of the perpetrators, located on the radical nationalist left. eir supporters consider that the
organisation arose as an inevitable response to the oppression suered by the Basque people. ey argue that there was equal
violence on both sides and that the actions of ETA were legitimate in the framework of a still-open historical ‘conict’ in which the
main guilty party was and remains to be the Spanish state.
Somewhere between these two perspectives, we nd what is called the ‘third space’. e term comes from a concept coined by
Elkarri, an organisation founded by Jonan Fernández (ex-General Secretary of Human Rights, Coexistence and Cooperation of
the Basque Government) in 1992, who saw himself as a mediator and sought to contribute to solving the ‘conict’ between the
‘Spanish state’ and violent organisations by recurring to conict resolution policies. It is a paradigm which is based on the ideals
of reconciliation, coexistence, overcoming confrontation, and recognising the suering of all victims, but sustained by the idea of
the ‘innite draw’ (Fernández, 2006: 218-222). is has been interpreted as an approximation to legitimising the violence of the
State Security Forces and Organisations and of ETA. Some historians highlight its ahistorical character, despite its good intentions
(De Pablo, 2016: 31). In his work, Castells (2014: 338) explains that, by placing all the victims in the spotlight and centring on the
need to overcome the ‘confrontation’, this narrative “leads to an implicit acceptance of the reasoning behind the two types of
violence” and carries a discourse leaning towards “generic expressions, to shunning political judgements and towards the use of
a convoluted and elusive language” and puts forth a vision which is neutral and accommodates the past. is narrative has been
associated with the peace and coexistence plans carried out by the Basque Government since 2012.
In this dispute about the narrative, ction has undoubtedly played a part (Rodríquez Fouz, 2021a), and
Homeland
is among these
novels. Hence, the study of its reception serves to underline the political and ideological starting points from which the topics
addressed in the novel are viewed (Navascués, 2019).
Up until now, the novel has aroused academic interest for its narrative structure (Alonso-Rey, 2019) the presence of topics such
as forgiveness or silence (Bezhanova, 2019; Delannoy, 2018; Jiménez Torres, 2019), its ethnographic and linguistic character (Cid
Abasolo, 2020) or the relationship between history and ction (Martínez Arrizabalaga, 2017, 2018; Navajas, 2019; Casas Olcoz,
2019). Its reception, however, is a subject which has been scarcely explored, although an initial approach which analyses three
negative reviews of the novel already argues that they are marked by “readers’ horizons of expectations
1
inuenced by reviews
which have little to do with the literature” (Navascués, 2019).
We attempt a broader analysis of the reception which focuses on the press given that, to a large extent,
Homeland
has become
a topic for public debate because of its exposure in the newspapers. Together with Zelizer (2008), we consider that the press is
1
e concept of “horizon” was developed by Gadamer (1975) and reinterpreted by Jauss (1977) in his ‘Reader-response criticism’, alluding to the “fusing of
horizons”, dened as the connection between the expectations expressed by the author in the literary text and the experiences of those readers present at any
given time. A common horizon which may encompass both art and history.
46
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Patria
and the memory of terrorism in Spain: coverage, treatment, and assessment...
ISSN: 1696-019X / e-ISSN: 2386-3978
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one of the most inuential institutions in how contemporary society records and remembers events, and therefore signicantly
contributes to the collective memory.
Collective memory is the process whereby a group of people, a community, or a society reconstruct shared experiences of the past
(Halbwachs, 1992). Dierent groups hold dierent memories, which give rise to dierent ways of living and behaving. erefore,
it is not simply a case of directly recovering facts related to the past, but rather constructing a narrative closely linked to the needs
of the present. Halbwachs dierentiates between two types of memories which make up the collective memory depending on
their origin: autobiographical, based on personal experience; and historical, based on indirect knowledge of a historical event.
Sources of indirect memories vary, ranging from history books to commemorations, taking in all types of cultural artefacts.
However, neither Halbwachs nor other classical collective memory theorists such as Le Go (1992) include journalism among
the agents of remembrance.
is void is recognised and certain authors such as Zelizer (1992, 2008) or Edy (1999) are starting to correct it by working on the
relationships between journalism and remembrance, and the press and the past. Zelizer (2008: 85) maintains that journalism
operates as one of the main institutions contemporary society uses to record and remember events. In her opinion, the press
exercises a type of cultural authority and journalists make up an interpretative community which provides narratives that defend
collective values (1992). Edy (1999) directly argues that journalism contributes to the construction and sharing of collective
memory. is contribution, which we propose here, depends as much on the desire or not to cover certain information, as the
approach they take towards them and the implicit or explicit evaluation of them, in such a way that matters as varied as length of
the piece, journalist genre or linguistic elements acquire importance.
As noted previously, since ETA laid down its arms, we nd ourselves in a ght to reconstruct collective memory around terrorism
in Spain, which is known as the “battle of the narrative”. e diculty in constructing a memory which is shared and accepted as
fair is clear (Rodríguez Fouz, 2021b), not to mention the ethical implications. Collective memory has the ability to bring the past
to justice and, above all, to avoid it repeating itself (Rodríguez Fouz, 2021b; Mate, 2016).
is is the framework in which
Homeland
is published and received and in which this research study is relevant. e aim is to
map the coverage, treatment and evaluation of Homeland in the national and Basque regional press, taking into account the
dierent ideological trends, with the objective of deepening our understanding of the collective memory of terrorism in the
Basque Country and the role the press plays in its creation and sharing.
e hypothesis we propose is that the press’ reception to
Homeland
shows how they take a stance which goes beyond the scope
of literature and can be seen to contribute towards the memory of terrorism.
2. Methodology
e used a content analysis methodology for this study (Piñuel Raigada, 2002; Ruiz Olabuénaga, 2013), which we applied to
a sample of journalistic texts published by agship national and Basque regional newspapers chosen according to audience
criteria and ideological representation during the years this study encompasses. Starting with the data available from the General
Media Study (EGM) (AIMC, 2016) for national press, and the Consortium for Economic and Social Research (CIES) (2018)
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for regional press, we chose four leading national newspapers :
El País, El Mundo, La Vanguardia
and
ABC
; and four regional
papers :
El Correo
,
El Diario Vasco
,
Gara
and
Deia
. e samples included texts published in the cultural supplement pages of
the newspapers, the results of which were evaluated together with those from the main section of the paper. We only took into
consideration paper-based editions.
Although there is no authoritative classication of the press regarding their political inclination, some authors oer approximations
to this, both for the national press (Nastasescu, 2017; Nogales Bocio y Mancinas Chávez, 2014) and regional (Murua y Ramírez de
la Piscina, 2017). Broadly speaking, these are how the selected newspapers are oriented:
–
El País
: edited in Madrid, progressive, centre-left. Grupo Prisa.
–
El Mundo
: Madrid, centre-right, liberal. Grupo Unidad Editorial.
–
La Vanguardia
: Barcelona, conservative beliefs and with autonomous orientation but not inclined towards independence.
Grupo Godó.
–
ABC
: Madrid, conservative, monarchist and catholic. Grupo Vocento.
–
El Correo
: Bilbao, conservative and anti-Basque nationalism. Grupo Vocento.
–
El Diario Vasco
: San Sebastian, conservative and non-nationalist. Grupo Vocento.
–
Gara
: San Sebastian, radical left-wing nationalist
.
Founded after the Government closure of
Egin
.
–
Deia
: Bizkaia, moderately Basque nationalist. Grupo Noticias.
To choose the texts, we performed a search for the keywords “
Patria
” and “Fernando Araburu” in MyNews. e analysis period
considered was limited to the six months after the publication of the novel (6 September 2016) and the ve months subsequent
to it receiving the National Prize for Narrative Literature (17 October 2017). We ruled out any events schedules, advertising, and
best-seller lists in the search results as they are not considered journalistic texts. In total, we collected a sample for analysis
consisting of 167 journalistic texts.
To ensure greater accuracy and objectivity in the recording and data analysis procedure, we created an analytical le with 13
variables (Table 1). After the search, we performed quantitative frequency analysis and qualitative analysis of the most relevant
aspects for the study, particularly for those associated with the discourse contained in the texts (approach and author’s opinion),
which allowed us to extract more thorough and substantiated conclusions.
Table 1. Analytical le for the reception of
Homeland
in the press
Technical File
Mean
El País/El Mundo/La Vanguardia/ABC/El Correo/El Diario Vasco/Deia/Gara
SphereNational/regional
Date
Date of publication
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Patria
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Headline
Headline of journalist piece
Journalistic features
Length
1/8, 1/4, 1/2, 3/4, 1, 2, more than 2 pages
GenreNews/feature/report
2
/interview
3
/column/forum/review or specialist critique/letter to the editor
4
Signature
Signed/not signed
Image
With/without image
Discourse analysis
Topic
Homeland
is the central topic/
Homeland
is mentioned in the text or as a footnote in addressing another matter
5
Lexical and semantic
features
Use of: demonstrative nouns or those used in evaluation and positive/negative adjectives on
Homeland
or the
Basque issue; expressions of obligation; attributive structures; forms of expression (metaphor/simile, metony
-
my, personication, hyperbole, enumeration, repetition, euphemism)
Use of termsPresence of elements of the lexical families of: “conict”; “assassination”; “terrorism”, “victim”, “armed struggle”
ApproachInformative/evaluative
Author’s opinion of
the text
e novel suitably reects the events in the Basque Country regarding terrorism: yes/no/does not say
e novel helps dierent ideologies to understand the view of ‘others’: yes/no/does not say
e novel is biased or partisan: yes/no/does not say
Source: compiled by author
2
In the case of reports, we have only considered ideas which can be attributed to the journalist.
3
e analysis distinguishes between interviews with Aramburu and other interviews. With regard to the interviews with Aramburu, we only considered the input
from the interviewer.
4
Although there is no consensus regarding whether letters to the editor constitute a journalistic genre, we have included them here following the criteria established
by Córdova (2011). Contesting claims by authors who believe the opposite, Córdova argues that although the letters are not written by a journalist, this is not
enough reason for them to be omitted from the eld of journalism. ese claims are based on the fact that there is no debate regarding columns or forums, which
do not have to be signed by a journalist either. Likewise, Córdova does not consider non-adherence to stylistic rules as reason for exclusion: newspapers submit
these texts to editing and this ensures that they meet the requirements. Furthermore, this writer considers that letters to the editor are transcendental in the world
of journalism, which needs the exchange of views with readers.
5
In those texts in which
Homeland
is not the central topic, we only analyse the part in which it is referred to.
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3. Results
3.1. Coverage
e novel
Homeland
receives general coverage (Table 2) which is slightly greater in the national press (95 pieces) than in the
regional (72). On a national level,
El Mundo
is the paper which returns the most results. Regionally, the papers which address the
novel most belong to the Vocento group, followed by
Deia
and
Gara
.
ese observations remain consistent even when dealing
solely with articles in which the novel is the central topic. Regarding the conservative/progressive divide, on a national level, we
can observe an equal amount of attention devoted to the novel. However, regional analysis shows that the non-nationalist press
(
El Correo
and
El Diario Vasco)
gave much more attention than the press which sympathises with moderate Basque nationalism
(
Deia
) and the radical left-wing nationalists (
Gara
).
Table 2. Coverage by number of journalistic pieces
Mean
Pieces related to
Homeland
Pieces in which
Homeland
is the
central topic
El País
2111
El Mundo
3614
La Vanguardia
206
ABC
185
El Correo
2614
El Diario Vasco
3314
Deia
96
Gara
34
Source: compiled by author
Regarding the temporal distribution of the articles published, on a national level, we observe that
El Mundo
and
El País
start to
write about the novel before its launch. From that moment, the four national newspapers maintain a consistent frequency of
articles published during the rst time period studied. eir attention is concentrated around the month it appears (September
2016) and resurges during the rst three months of 2017. However, the Basque regional press shows dierences depending on the
ideology of the newspaper in question. e non-nationalist regional press follow the lines of the national press and maintain a
stable level of attention given to the novel from September 2016 to February 2017. Nevertheless,
Deia
only published two articles
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January-June of 2023
The reception of the novel
Patria
and the memory of terrorism in Spain: coverage, treatment, and assessment...
ISSN: 1696-019X / e-ISSN: 2386-3978
doxa.comunicación
on the novel in the rst two months after its publication and does not address the topic again until February 2017.
Gara
waited
until December 2016 to mention the novel.
During the second period studied (after it was awarded the National Prize for Narrative Literature in 2017), all the papers gave
it similar attention in the rst month. However, while the national press continued to write about it over the following months,
the regional reaction is more inconsistent.
El Correo
and
El Diario Vasco
continue to regularly publish articles on the novel.
Deia
maintains a consistent frequency, but only mentions it once a month.
Gara
, however, mentions the news event at the time it
happened, but does not mention it again.
Use of image to illustrate the pieces (Table 3) is similar among all the national press. However, in the regional press,
El Correo
and
El Diario Vasco
stand out above
Deia
and
Gara
.
Table 3. Use of image in the pieces referring to
Homeland
per paper
Mean
Use of image
El País
42.8%
El Mundo
41.6%
La Vanguardia
45%
ABC
44.4%
El Correo
50%
El Diario Vasco
42.4%
Deia
33%
Gara
25%
Source: compiled by author
As to the space on pages the content dealing with
Homeland
as the central topic occupies (Table 4), the national press stand out
with an average of 55.5% articles lling a full page or more, compared to 28.9% in the regional press. On a regional level,
El Correo
is the paper which dedicates most space to
Homeland
while
Gara
does not dedicate an entire page in any of its pieces. It is worth
highlighting that some newspapers include references to the articles on
Homeland
on their front page. is is the case with
El
Correo
(4),
El Mundo
(2),
El Diario Vasco
(1), and
El País
(1).
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Table 4. Length of articles referring to
Homeland
per paper
Mean
One or more pages
El País
54.5%
El Mundo
64%
La Vanguardia
33.3%
ABC
60%
El Correo
42%
El Diario Vasco
28.5%
Deia
16.6%
Gara
0%
Source: compiled by author
3.2. Approach
Secondly, we deal with the type of approach each paper has towards the novel and its possible relationship with the geographical
scope of its coverage or its ideology. We observe two variables: a) genre of the journalistic article, and b) if the approach is
informative or evaluative in the articles in which
Homeland
appears as the central topic.
Since the invention of the ‘journalistic genre’ in the 19th Century, the binary distinction between facts (objective) and
evaluation (subjective) has remained the dominant discourse, even in academic work. For example, Lorenzo Gomis (2008),
structures his theory of journalistic genres around two blocks depending on function: facts (news, report, interview, feature) and
commentaries (review, letters to the editor, article of importance to the author, columns, editorials and so on). However, a more
mature epistemology warns us that this distinction is insucient (Núñez Ladevéze, 2004; Abellán-García, 2012: 442-445) and
the dierentiation between facts (objective) and opinions (subjective) becomes articial. Genres such as reports or interviews
contain a more interpretative content than news, for example. Beyond the academic debate, professionals usually abide by more
specic formal criteria, of the type: news, report, review, critique, opinion column, and so on, in accordance with the media style
book. is criteria oers a reading pact which is more or less evident to readers.
erefore, this analysis takes into account both the specic genre and the informative or evaluative content in each piece analysed,
as we believe that even a news item can have an interpretative aspect and contain an implicit or explicit evaluation. To simplify
things, hereinafter, we group news, features, reports and interviews under the umbrella of informative and interpretative genres;
and columns, forums, reviews, critiques and letters to the editor under opinion-oriented genres.
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Patria
and the memory of terrorism in Spain: coverage, treatment, and assessment...
ISSN: 1696-019X / e-ISSN: 2386-3978
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To consider whether the approach is evaluative or informative, we look for the presence of markers: positive or negative adjectives
and nouns referring to the novel; use of positive or negative attributive structures; use and context of nouns with connotations
such as “terrorism”, “assassination”, “victims” or “conict”; and the direct presence of the article author’s opinion.
Table 5. Number of articles with
Homeland
as the central topic according to journalistic genre per newspaper
Mean
NewsFeatureReportInterview
Review
CritiqueForum
Column
Letter to
the editor
El País
202201220
El Mundo
300520220
La Vanguardia
200111010
ABC
000220010
El Correo
222130311
El Diario Vasco
500210312
Deia
100100031
Gara
100010110
Source: compiled by author
No major dierences are observed in the national press, as far as the editorial policy is concerned, in the distribution of articles
belonging to the informative and interpretative genres and genres of opinion. In the conservative press (
El Mundo, La Vanguardia,
and
ABC)
, the informative and interpretative genre makes up 33.3% of the total articles while opinion corresponds to 66.6%. In
the progressive
El País
, the percentages are 43% and 57%, respectively. However, we observe some peculiarities when it comes
to specic genres. e only national newspaper which publishes reports focusing on
Homeland
is
El País
, which also dedicates
news about and interviews with the author. On the other end of the spectrum, the
ABC
only includes interviews with Aramburu.
El Mundo
interviews the author on up to ve occasions, a clear sign of how interested this newspaper is in giving him a voice.
e four newspapers publish reviews and critiques which relate to
Homeland
as a literary product and all four included opinion
columns focused on it. It is also striking that in
El País
,
El Mundo
,
La Vanguardia
and the regional
El Diario Vasco,
there are a
signicant number of columns which are not centred on
Homeland
, but which mention the book or use it as a footnote to address
a dierent topic. Its appearance suggests that the columnists presuppose that their readers share a common awareness of the
book.
e regional press shows distribution dierences between the papers.
El Correo
and
El Diario Vasco
, the two non-nationalist
newspapers, make a more balanced use of the informative and interpretative and opinion-based genres: 46% of articles belong
to the rst group, 54% to the latter. Both papers include news about
Homeland
and interviews with Aramburu, while
El Correo
also publishes features and reports. In opinion-based genres, both papers show a greater number of forums signed by external
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collaborators than columns. ey also publish reviews of the book, although there are no specialised critiques. Maybe the greatest
peculiarity is they are interested in their readers’ opinions about
Homeland
: both publish letters to the editor about the novel,
something which is not seen in the national press, which they share with
Deia
.
Both
Deia
and
Gara
, the two nationalist newspapers, show greater emphasis on the opinion-based genres (70% of the articles)
over informative and interpretative (30%). e dierence is particularly apparent in the case of the newspaper with close links to
the separatist left, which publishes one news feature (25%) compared to a column, forum and review (75%).
Beyond these genres, we observe the informative and evaluative perspective adopted in the articles (Table 6).
Table 6. Number of articles with
Homeland
as central topic per newspaper according to approach
Mean
Articles with informative
approach
Articles with evaluative
approach
El País
29
El Mundo
86
La Vanguardia
33
ABC
05
El Correo
410
El Diario Vasco
59
Deia
15
Gara
13
Source: compiled by author
Generally, in the national press, the approach is more evaluative than informative and in this case, we do not see dierences
according to ideology. Both in
ABC
and
El País
, almost all the articles (all in
ABC
, 82% in
El País
) have some form of evaluative
element, even in the news pieces. In the case of
El Mundo
and
La Vanguardia,
the separation is more dened: the informative
approach corresponds greatly with the pieces belonging to the informative and interpretative genres, with the evaluative approach
a feature of opinion-based genres.
e regional press follow a similar pattern. e approach is generally evaluative in all cases, although there are nuances. In
El
Correo
and
El Diario Vasco,
the pieces included in the informative and interpretative genres are divided quite equally between
those with a merely informative perspective (57%) (89% of those news features) and those which include some evaluative element
on
Homeland
(43%), among which we nd news features, reports, and interviews. In the case of
Deia
, 50% of the pieces in the
informative and interpretative genre maintain a neutral stance, while the other half includes a judgement. In
Gara
, the evaluative
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ISSN: 1696-019X / e-ISSN: 2386-3978
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approach is reserved for opinion articles which, as we have stated, are in the majority. Both in
Deia
and
Gara
, the few news
features about the novel are strictly informative in nature.
3.3.
Assessment
irdly, in the pieces with
Homeland
as the central topic, we analyse the variables associated with the lexis used by the author of
the journalistic text and its connotative value: lexical and semantic features, relevant terms used, and author’s opinion.
We searched for the presence and frequency of semantic features which provide an opinionated or disparaging value to the text,
even in those which presuppose objectivity in their aforementioned pact with the reader. We must state that these elements are
not always used in the same sense. A good example is the noun “victim” –although its meaning in its denotative sense is negative
because it refers to a person who has suered some damage, we consider that its appearance in the text is positive as it serves to
reect reality and not silence or hide it. Something similar occurs with words such as “terrorism” or “assassination”, which really
refer to a negative reality but their use can be considered positive as it does not hide the responsibility of ETA for its actions; a
responsibility which would be diluted by using expressions such as “armed struggle” or “conict”. To do this, we start with an
initial count of the terms (Table 7) and subsequently dedicate our attention to the contextual use of certain lexical and semantic
features which are particularly signicant: “conict”, “armed struggle”, “terrorism”, “assassination” and “victims”.
Table 7. Frequency of appearance of the most repeated nouns and adjectives which are opinionated or disparaging in the sample pieces
OpinionatedDisparaging
NounsFreq.AdjectivesFreq.NounsFreq.AdjectivesFreq.
Victim26Good/better12Terrorism36Terrorist12
Phenomenon8Great8Violence19Bad8
Family7Moral5Silence15Painful7
Forgiveness7Brave4Assassin9Broken7
Coexistence6Moving4Fanaticism8Hard4
Memory5Essential3Pain8Violent4
Peace5Ethic3Conict8Totalitarian3
True4Accurate3Hate8Armed3
Responsibility4Human3Wounded7Cursed3
Hero4Death6Turbulent3
Friendship4Tragedy6Infamous3
Suering5Brutal3
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Assassination at
-
tempt
4Coward3
ETA member
4
Fight4
Prisoners4
Extortion4
reat4
Executioner4
Source: compiled by author
We observed that these terms, whether positive or negative, refer to similar realities. e rst mostly refer to the consequences of
physical and moral harm as a result of the violence; the second refer both to the desire for recovery and understanding proposed
by the novel, on a ctional level, and the critical and public acclaim the book has received.
With regard to the contextual use of key words (“conict”, “assassination”, “terrorism”, “victims” and “armed struggle”) found in the
analysis, we focus only on those pieces in which
Homeland
is the central topic.
Table 8. Presence/absence of signicant terms per newspaper in the articles in which
Homeland
is the central topic
Mean
conictassassinationterrorismvictims
armed
struggle
yesnoyesnoyesnoyesnoyesno
El País
3746648237
El Mundo
211758558013
ABC
3232322314
La Vanguardia
2332323232
El Correo
0139310468014
El Diario Vasco
1836271718
Deia
0606151515
Gara
2204040304
Source: compiled by author
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In the 74 pieces studied, the word “conict” appears 13 times: 10 in the national press and 3 in the regional. If we consider
the use of this term with connotations which help palliate the harsh reality of fty years of ETA violence (Rivera, 2019), we can
see in
ABC
that the word is accompanied by expressions like “poorly dened...” (Pozuelo Yvancos, 2016a and 2016b), or “they
recognise the euphemistic use of the word ‘the conict’ by the party responsible for the assassinations” (Lafuente, 2016). In other
words, the traditionally conservative national newspaper does not only underscore the use of the term as a euphemism, but also
highlights its incorrect use in describing the reality. For their part, the progressive paper
El País
uses the term occasionally in a
context similar to that mentioned above as follows: “hypocrisy leads to us calling it…” (Mainer, 2016) and: “Not the author, but if
an interviewee […] speaks about the “matter of the Basque conict”” (Hermoso, 2017). However, on other occasions, it uses the
term without this subtlety: “Digs down deeper to the roots of a conict which has poisoned Basque society” (Ruiz Mantilla, 2017).
e same happens with
La Vanguardia,
in “as what is there called the ‘conict’ over the Basque homeland” (García, 2017) and
in “Aramburu had already written about the victims and the conict in a memorable book of stories” (Fernández, 2016). e rst
example, mentions the term “conict” in a context which rejects its poor use, but in the second case, it is used as a euphemism.
Other uses of this key concept in the rest of the articles are not relevant as they do not appear with the connotation in question.
However, in the four pieces referring to
Homeland
in
Gara
, the context in which the term appears is: “e Basque conict now
has its best-seller” (Zurimendi, 2017) and “the problem the characters face is that they try to represent universal stereotypes with
regard to the conict but end up being converted into hyperbole. And anyway, can we say “conict” now that the battle is about
the narrative?” (Pradilla, 2016). e ideological weight in the use of the term is evident.
e noun “assassination” is found on 29 occasions: 17 in national newspapers and 12 in regional ones, but none of these incidences
are in
Deia
or
Gara
, which seems signicant. When the term appears, it is used unequivocally. Some examples of context are the
following. In
El Mundo
: “Travels to the past to show the lives of families who once friends, are now separated as a result of an
assassination by the group” (Sanz Ezquerro, 2017) or in
El Correo
: “It does a good job of describing the ill feeling, tension, and
suering of the two families because of an alleged Basque homeland to be achieved by means of assassination, extortion and
shame...” (Monge Ugarte, 2016).
e word “terrorism” appears on 33 occasions with a similar distribution to the above: 20 in the national press and 13 in the
regional
.
Once again, it is interesting that there is no mention in
Gara
and only one in
Deia
. On this occasion, its use is simply in
its purest sense: “In the long ght against terrorism in the Basque Country” (Agencia, 2017), we read in
El País
; “Five years after
ETA laid down their arms, there is a conviction that terrorism has been defeated” (Rusiñol, 2016), in
La Vanguardia;
or “there are
still some citizens who try to justify terrorism in the interest of a utopian state which will always remain elusive” (Monge, 2016),
in
El Diario Vasco.
We nd the term “victim” 26 times, distributed as follows: 18 in the national press and 8 in the regional. Along the lines of how
the previous nouns were used, we nd that
Gara
does not use it once. With regard to the contexts in which it appears, we see in
El
País
: “e rupture of the victims” (Seisdedos, 2016) and in
Deia
: “e opposite ends of Euskadi, one of violence and the other of
the victims. It is tremendously futile. Here, there aren’t two groups, they haven’t survived” (Blázquez, 2017).
Appearing much less than the aforementioned nouns, the presence of “armed struggle” only appears 9 times: 7 in the national
press and twice in the regional, none being in
El Correo
or
Gara
. e use of this word can help disguise historical reality, as
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happens with “conict”, and is observed in this way in
El País
in: “ere they all are: the people of the armed struggle and the
imprisonment of their heroes...” (Mainer, 2016). We nd a use without nuances in
Deia
: “History takes o since the day that the
organisation announced the end of the armed struggle” (Razkin, 2016) or in
El Diario Vasco
: “And around the end of the armed
struggle is this other confession made between brothers” (Escalada, 2016).
We now move on to observations of the authors’ opinions expressed in the pieces we have analysed regarding certain aspects
which link the novel’s publication to the socio-political repercussions in its reception (Table 9).
Table 9. Presence of the author’s opinion: number and percentage of pieces which contain that opinion per total
number of pieces in which
Homeland
is the central topic
Mean
e novel accurately reects
what happened
e novel helps dierent
ideologies to understand the
view of ‘others’
e novel is biased
or partisan
Yes/%No/%Yes/%No/%Yes/%No/%
El País
8/ 73%0/ 0%0/ 0%0/ 0%0/ 0%1/ 9%
El Mundo
6/ 43%0/ 0%2/ 14%0/ 0%0/ 0%1/ 17%
ABC
5/ 100%0/ 0%2/ 40%0/ 0%0/ 0%4/ 80%
La Vanguardia
3/ 50%0/ 0%0/ 0%0/ 0%0/ 0%2/ 33%
El Correo
9/ 64%2/ 14%3/ 21%0/ 0%0/ 0%7/ 50%
El Diario Vasco
7/ 50%1/ 0%2/ 14%0/ 0%1/ 7%5/ 36%
Deia
2/ 33%2/ 33%1/ 17%1/ 17%3/ 50%1/ 6%
Gara
0/ 0%3/ 75%0/ 0%2/ 50%3/ 75%0/ 0%
Source: compiled by author
Regarding whether the author believes that the novel accurately reects what happened, we nd that in 74 pieces, 41 authors
believe so: 22 in the national press and 19 in the regional. In 23 cases, also very equal in terms of distribution (12-11), the authors
do not oer a viewpoint. ere are more noticeable dierences between newspapers, as can be seen in Table 9: the percentages
made up by the pieces with that opinion out of the total range from 100% in
ABC
to 0% in
Gara
. e lowest percentages appear in
the Basque regional press. Furthermore, the opinion that the book does not accurately reect reality appears 8 times, always in
the regional press, and particularly in those more aligned to the separatist left: this belief is seen in 75% of the pieces published
in
Gara
.
We nd dierent forms of expressing the opinion that the novel accurately reects what happened: “It’s much more than a simple
novel about ETA. It addresses everybody, gives them all a voice and allows us to navigate the meticulous and shocking portrait of
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a wounded and divided society” (García Calero, 2016), in
ABC
; “In the future, if anybody wants to understand what happened, all
they need is to read this novel” (Redondo Terreros, 2017), in
El Mundo
; or “It is at once a true chronicle of the harsh social reality
in the towns of Euskadi during the nal decades of ETA campaigns” (García, 2017), in
La Vanguardia
, all in the national press.
However, there are also examples in Basque newspapers: “
Homeland
should be essential reading for whoever wants to learn
about recent Basque history. It recreates a realist ction of the state of social anomie which sheds light on ideological fanaticism“
(Urrutia, 2016), in
El Diario Vasco
. Or, in
Deia
:
(...) we nd the painful reconstruction of something which, to our regret and shame, is all too true. El Txato, Bittori (…) and all
the other characters, including the nauseating Patxi, are true reections, taken from our natural environment, from the esh and
blood which we have had the pleasure and misfortune of dealing with in our surroundings (Vizcaíno, 2016).
In
Gara
, the reference to the idea that Homeland truly reects what happens has an ironic and critical tone:
If one was any of the stereotypes orchestrated by Spanish unionism to explain what happened in the Basque Country over the past
few decades and does not appear in
Homeland
, the latest novel by Fernando Aramburu, they should be outraged and question
their existence. He doesn’t miss anyone (Pradilla, 2016).
Regarding whether the author considers that the novel helps one party to understand the views of another (constitutionalists,
nationalists, separatists), our results show this to be the case on 10 occasions: 4 in the national press and 6 in the regional. ere
are three authors who take the opposite point of view - all of them in the nationalist regional press. It is noteworthy that 57 authors
do not comment on this, a trend which is evenly distributed between the two groups (30-27). In the national press, there are
examples such as this from
El Mundo
: “And what’s more, a text cleverly written, which opens the way to reconciliation despite
the wounds which still remain open” (Tadeu, 2017). In the regional press, most of the positive outlooks are found in the non-
nationalist press such as
El Correo
: “From there, we see the need to see each side as equals, reecting the questions, fears, and
misunderstanding of one side towards the other” (Coca, 2016); in nationalist press like
Deia
: “ere is little clumsy Manichaeism
in almost 650 pages of a tale which I sincerely hope will lead the way for many others to enter, without making concessions, the
realm of that past which many wish to either polish or bury” (Vizcaíno, 2016). In contrast, it never appears in
Gara
, which only
shows examples of the opposite viewpoint: “In other words, reading this book will not move anybody from their comfort zone”
(Pradilla, 2016).
We conclude with the consideration that the novel is biased or partisan and observe that on only 7 occasions do the authors
believe that this is the case, all in the regional press (particularly the nationalist papers), compared to 21 who believe that the
novel is not biased or partisan, which appear in both national and regional press. We nd examples like these in the national
press: “With
Homeland
, he has managed to unite critics, readers... and politicians” (Martín Rodrigo, 2017), in
ABC
; “
Homeland
gets involved without taking sides” (Redondo Terreros, 2017), in
El Mundo
; “Opportunity, credibility, empathy with the victims,
and the absence of political bias seem to form the basis of its success” (Aizpeolea, 2017), in
El País
; or “ere are no political
prejudices, just an ethical point of view” (Masoliver Ródenas, 2016), in
La Vanguardia
. e few similar opinions found in the
non-nationalist regional press go along the same lines: «(...) its total lack of Manichaeism” (Coca, 2017) and «But the author, with
impeccable moral decency, leaves it to each reader to decide where they stand with regard to each character’s motives” (Bengoa,
2016). In the nationalist press, however, we nd opinions of this type: “My impression is that
Homeland
wants to intervene, in
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its own particular way, in the writing of a narrative, the xation of those who are afraid of losing this stupid battle of history”
(Blázquez, 2016) or “e Basque reality was and still is much more complex and transcends the crude duality contained in
Homeland
” (Blázquez, 2016), in
Deia
.
Gara
also stands out in this regard:
And the success of
Homeland
is not a coincidence. Simply put, someone wanted a gloried tale of constitutionalism at the same
time demonising independence. A novel to win the battle of the narrative. We are talking of the political establishment (PP-PSE-
UPyD) (Zurimendi, 2017).
4. Discussion and conclusions
e wide reception
Homeland
garnered in the press is proof that the story penned by Aramburu has transcended literary ction
and has found its way into public opinion. As Navascués (2019) predicted, the analysis shows that there seems to be a non-literary
backdrop surrounding its reception which to a large extent revolves around politics, which is discerned above all in the realm of
the regional press.
e main national papers pay similar, timely and consistent attention to the novel and all of them tend towards an evaluative
approach over informative, even in pieces such as news features or reports. is fact is reinforced by the appearance of columnists
who broach the subject when referring to matters of Spanish politics even in texts which are not centred around
Homeland
,
which suggests that the columnists presuppose a shared awareness of the novel by their readers. In general and irrespective of
the ideological ideals of the newspapers, in the national press, they receive the novel in a very positive light and particularly praise
its ability to accurately reect what happened regarding ETA, making the novel a great place to start to learn about the events
of this time. In alignment with this, it is signicant to see the use of terms such as “terrorism”, “assassination”, or “victim”, which
directly single out the responsibility of the terrorists and in some way places the discourse of the press close to what is known as
the narrative of the victims, or, at the very least, distances themselves from the perpetrators.
It is also worth noting when they use terms such as “conict” or “armed struggle” (expressions commonly used in the nationalist
environment which diminish ETA’s responsibility), the national press usually add a nuance to highlight they do not accurately
reect what happened. ere is however, certain discordance regarding this last point. For example, while the most conservative
newspaper
ABC
always includes this subtlety, the most progressive
El País
on occasions does not, thus approving its use to refer
to what happened. is dierence may point to certain inuence from the ideological tendency of the paper when broaching the
topic, but above all, it is a sign of how the language driven by the nationalist world has permeated public opinion even outside of
the Basque Country.
However, in the national press in general, we observe a more or less homogeneous discourse with regard to
Homeland
and its
contribution to the memory of terrorism.
is diers from the Basque regional press, where we can observe signicant dierences which give rise to three viewpoints.
Firstly, the reception by the non-nationalist papers
El Correo
and
El Diario Vasco
coincide to a large extent with that written in the
national newspapers: wide coverage, similar evaluative approach, and eminently positive opinion regarding the novel. Secondly,
the paper
Deia
holds the middle ground somewhat in its reception to
Homeland
. Its coverage has been more or less stable, a lot
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more evaluative than informative, but with a less-dened evaluation of the novel: in this paper there is an equal proportion of
opposing ideas, such as a belief that the novel accurately or inaccurately reects what happened, or that the novel may or may
not help open the doors to “reconciliation”. Finally
Gara
, the paper closely aligned to the radical left-wing nationalists, stands
out from the rest of the papers in almost every way. Its content related to
Homeland
is limited to the minimum, with a brief news
feature which was strictly informative. e opinion they have published about the novel, which is similarly scarce, appears to be
reactive, almost addressing the topic out of obligation due to its public notoriety. is opinion is also negative. ey claim that
Homeland is a biased novel, which hinders opportunities and understanding in Basque society rather than promoting it, and
does not truly reect what happened. It is also signicant that this paper is the only one in which the terms such as “assassination”,
“terrorism” and “victim” never appear, the connotations of which have been addressed above.
is three-fold perspective on the reception of
Homeland
in the Basque regional press could be linked to three main paradigms
which dispute the space of the memory of Basque terrorism in the post-terrorist era: that of the victims, of the perpetrators,
and that known as the ‘third space’, which was discussed in the introduction to this article. e narrative of the victims could be
found in non-nationalist papers:
El Diario Vasco
and
El Correo
. e perspective of the perpetrators, politically situated on the
radical left-wing nationalist side, would explain the totally negative reception that
Gara
gave Aramburu’s novel, which brings the
victims of ETA to the fore and distances itself from the discourse of a ‘conict’, even though it does recognise the suering which
members of the organisation may have experienced and the environment they lived in. e perspective called ‘the third space’,
which is based on the idea of ‘conict’ but distances itself from the above because it dierentiates between the victims and the
perpetrators, could be associated to the reception given by
Deia
.
All of the above suggests that the reception of
Homeland
in the Basque Country has been marked by non-literary interests, in
particular by the dierent approaches to ETA which are involved in the ‘battle of the discourse’ or memory of terrorism. It shows
that Aramburu’s work has been read as much more than a novel and also shows that the newspapers try to exercise their role as
creators of public opinion regarding relevant social and political matters, even from texts which are dedicated to cultural items.
Convinced the press exercises a type of cultural authority and that journalism contributes to the creation and sharing of collective
remembrance, we conclude that the coverage, approach and opinion the papers have given to Homeland could reect their stance
on the issue of remembering terrorism in the Basque Country, a matter they mediate in with their texts on Aramburu’s novel.
e limitations of this content analysis prevent us from drilling down deeper into the qualitative aspects, something which would
be of interest in more in-depth future research. e study could be extended with a more detailed discourse analysis on a smaller
sample of texts, such as interviews with some of the authors of the journalistic pieces which were analysed to see how they believe
the press contributes to the memory of terrorism.
5. Acknowledgements
Article translated into English by Charles Bretherton Jones.
is work is part of the research project “Mundos posibles poéticos: fundamentos losócos, teoría y practicas hermenéuticas”,
of the 2022 call for research projects funded by the Universidad Francisco de Vitoria of Madrid.
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6. Specic contributions from each
Name and Surname
Conception and design of the work
Roncesvalles Labiano Juangarcía, Victoria Hernández Ruiz and
Íñigo Urquía
Uriaguereca
Methodology
Roncesvalles Labiano Juangarcía, Victoria Hernández Ruiz and
Íñigo Urquía
Uriaguereca
Data collection and analysis
Roncesvalles Labiano Juangarcía, Victoria Hernández Ruiz and
Íñigo Urquía
Uriaguereca
Discussion and conclusions
Roncesvalles Labiano Juangarcía, Victoria Hernández Ruiz and
Íñigo Urquía
Uriaguereca
Drafting, formatting, version review and approval
Roncesvalles Labiano Juangarcía, Victoria Hernández Ruiz and
Íñigo Urquía
Uriaguereca
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Bezhanova, O. (2019). Silence and Invisibility as Weapons of Hegemonic Nationalism in Fernando Aramburu’s Patria.
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Casas Olcoz, A. M. (2019). Tratamiento ccional de un suceso histórico.
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doxa.comunicación
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