European models of the age rating of audio-visual content: keys to
their adaptation to the digital consumption of children’s audiences
Modelos europeos de clasicación por edades del contenido audio-visual:
claves para su adaptación al consumo digital del público infantil
doxa.comunicación |
nº 36, pp. 359-379
| 359
January-June of 2023
ISSN: 1696-019X / e-ISSN: 2386-3978
How to cite this article:
Martín-Nieto, R. Martínez Otón, L. and Pedrero Esteban, L. M. (2023). European models of the age rating of audio-visual content: keys to
their adaptation to the digital consumption of children’s audiences.
Doxa Comunicación
, 36, pp. 359-379.
https://doi.org/10.31921/doxacom.n36a1700
Rebeca Martín-Nieto.
PhD in Communication Sciences and Master in Neurodidactics from the Universidad Rey
Juan. Graduate in Audio-visual Communication from the Universidad Complutense de Madrid. Lecturer in Audio-
visual Communication and Advertising (URJC). She has participated in several national and international research
projects (
Plan I+D+i
) projects. Her lines of research focus on the relationship between the Internet and children
and adolescents and its application in education innovation and communication in organisations. She is a member
of Research Groups on Communication, Society and Culture (GICOMSOC),
Investigación Solidar&dar
, and the
teaching innovation group
docente CC_Creat&in
. She won the Innovative Teachers Award URJC 2021 with the “
Radio
Gaga: la escucha desatada
” project.
Rey Juan Carlos University, Spain
[email protected]
ORCID: 0000-0003-3184-3564
Laura Martínez Otón.
PhD in Social Communication from CEINDO (CEU San Pablo University). Degree in Journalism
from CEU San Pablo in Madrid. Currently directs the Master in radio, podcast and digital audio at Universidad Nebrija.
She teaches in dierent degrees in the Faculty of Communication and Arts at Universidad Nebrija. She is a member of
the
INNOMEDIA
Research Group at the Universidad Nebrija, where she focuses her research on radio, podcasts and
audio in relation to the digital communication society. She has developed her professional career in communication in
Grupo COPE
(1995-2019),
Cadena 100
and
Cadena COPE
. She has worked alongside Carlos Herrera, Ernesto Sáenz de
Buruaga, Ángel Expósito, Javi Nieves or Cristina López Schlichting, among others. She was awarded the IX Award “Lolo”
for her career as the
Grupo Norte Radio
Award against Gender Violence.
Nebrija University, Spain
[email protected]
ORCID: 0000-0002-2535-8282
Luis Miguel Pedrero Esteban
. Degree in Information Sciences from the Universidad Ponticia de Salamanca (1994) and
PhD in Audio-visual Communication and Advertising from the Universidad Autonoma de Barcelona (1999). He has been
a news editor at
Cadena SER
(Madrid and Zamora), scriptwriter of musicals at
Los 40, M-80
and
Dial
; collaborator at
COPE
Salamanca
and
Onda Cero Salamanca
; and a consultant at
Kiss FM, RTVC, RTVM
and
CRTVG.
Professor in the Faculty
of Communication and Arts at the Universidad Nebrija (Madrid) and principal researcher of the
INNOMEDIA
research
group. Visiting Researcher at Università degli Studi di Siena (Italy), Birmingham City University (e UK); and Universidad
de Lima (Peru). Guest lecturer in UNAM (Mexico), Concepción (Chile),
Técnica Particular
de Loja and
Técnica de Cotopaxí
(Ecuador),
Nacional de Quilmes
(Argentina),
Monteavila
(Venezuela) (Ecuador) and
do Minho
(Braga, Portugal). Lecturer
in
Radio Masters
(CEU),
Podcast and Digital Audio
(Barreira),
Radio, Podcast and Digital Audio
(Nebrija).
Nebrija University, Spain
[email protected]
ORCID: 0000-0003-4949-2360
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1. Introduction and State of play
Connectivity and normalising Internet access have redened the relationship with digital content and networks between the
media and citizenry,
especially for adolescents and young people. is demographic’s familiarity and continuous contact
with virtual scenarios facilitate a more uid relationship with screens and the digital environment. However, this does not
necessarily lead to more in-depth knowledge or critical capacity (Sádaba and Pérez-Escoda, 2020).
For the rst time in history, young people are taking the initiative and acting as drivers for the use of the media and interaction
with its contents (Rubio Gil, 2000). However, they consume fewer traditional radio and press brands in favour of social networks
and new digital windows (Jiménez-Morales, Montaña and Medina Bravo, 2020). is trend has been observed since the second
decade of the 21st century, as the time 14-25-year-olds dedicated to conventional media shortened while the time spent on
social platforms and networks via smartphones, P.C.s and tablets has been increasing (López-Vidales and López-Rubio, 2021).
e academic debate focused on whether children have been connected for some time. In the third decade of the new
millennium, the focus has been on how younger generations interact on the web since their intensive presence on it is
unquestionable: reports such as
e Monitor Report
(Childwise, 2022) show that the access age to a smartphone is seven
years old, and at 11 it is almost universal. Another study in 19 European countries on a sample of 25 101 children aged 9 to
16 (Smahel
et al
., 2020) estimated daily Internet connection time to be almost 3 hours (2 h47min). e U.S
Common Sense
Abstract:
e digital media ecosystem has become established as the dominant
reference for entertainment. Its exponential supply is immediately,
everywhere, and continuously accessible through connected devices.
is has diminished the eect of guidance systems on the suitability
or unsuitability of content for children and adolescents. is research
review organises and systematises the criteria and indicators of age
rating models in television, cinema, video streaming platforms and
video games applied in Spain, the United Kingdom, France, Germany,
Italy and Portugal, six European countries with similar socio-cultural
environments and market structures. e study nds notable
dierences in the denition and classication according to the media
and territories: it also emphasises the need to redene the semantic,
aesthetic and technical bases on which to build a common model of
recommendation compatible with all digital content, regardless of the
medium or distribution technology; this is the only way to promote
active consumption that fosters critical thinking and digital media
education in children and young people.
Keywords:
Digital consumption; advice; classication; age; childhood.
Resumen:
El ecosistema mediático digital se ha estandarizado como referencia
preeminente de ocio y entretenimiento. Su exponencial oferta resulta ac
-
cesible de forma inmediata, ubicua y constante a través de dispositivos
conectados, y ello ha diluido la efectividad de los sistemas de orienta
-
ción sobre la idoneidad o inconveniencia de contenidos para niños y
adolescentes. Esta investigación revisa, ordena y sistematiza los criterios
e indicadores de los modelos de clasicación por edades en la televisión,
el cine, las plataformas de streaming de video y los videojuegos utiliza
-
dos en España, Reino Unido, Francia, Alemania, Italia y Portugal, seis
países europeos con entornos socioculturales y estructuras de mercado
asimilables. El estudio constata notables diferencias en la denición y
categorización según los medios y territorios; además, pone de relieve
la necesidad de redenir las bases semánticas, estéticas y técnicas sobre
las que construir un modelo común de recomendaciones compatible
con todos los contenidos digitales, al margen del tipo de soporte o la tec
-
nología de distribución; sólo así se podrá promover un consumo activo
que fomente el pensamiento crítico y la educación mediática digital en
niños y jóvenes.
Palabras clave:
Consumo digital; asesoramiento; clasicación; edad; infancia.
Received: 31/05/2022 - Accepted: 22/07/2022 - Early access: 26/09/2022 - Published: 01/01/2023
Recibido: 31/05/2022 - Aceptado: 22/07/2022 - En edición: 26/09/2022 - Publicado: 01/01/2023
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Media
(2020) revealed that children aged 8 to 12 spend 4:44h a day on screen time, increasing to 7:22h among adolescents (13
to 18 years old). In Spain, schoolchildren aged 6 to 13 spend 5 hours on screen time on average on weekdays and seven on
weekends, according to AIMC (2018).
e repertoire of content they accessed during that time has multiplied exponentially to the extent that the paradigm “whatever
they want, wherever they want, whenever they want” has been normalised. is logic has changed the media industry’s
production and distribution patterns and the eectiveness of parental mediation typical of the analogue era: the renewal of
technologies, the emergence of multi-platforms and the hybridisation of genres and languages make it dicult to classify and
categorise content according to age appropriateness. Cautions must be used as a measure for protecting children and needs
increasingly complex regulation in the current environment.
2. Background
First, we must dene child to dene what childhood is. A child is a person under 18 years of age in accordance with article 12 of
the Spanish Constitution (E.C.), following precept 1 of the Organic Law 1/1996 (January 15) on the Legal Protection of Minors,
and the denition of the Convention on the Rights of a Child (1989), an international treaty in the United Nations resolution
44/25, which also establishes that:
“e child shall have the right to freedom of expression; this right shall include the freedom to seek, receive and impart information
and ideas of all types, regardless of frontiers, either orally, in writing or in print, in the form of art, or through any other media of
the child’s choice […]; e States Parties recognise the important role played by the mass media shall ensure that the child has
access to information and material from a diversity of national and international sources, especially information and material
aimed at promoting their social, spiritual and moral well-being and physical and mental health. To this end, State Parties shall:
(a) Encourage the media to disseminate information and materials of social and cultural interest to the child [...] (e.) Promote the
development of appropriate guidelines to protect the child from information and material harmful of their well-being [...]”.
erefore responsibility goes beyond families, and the media and society are responsible for children’s development, education
and training (Lozano-Oyola; Romero Landa, 2009), although parents are ultimately responsible for the contents their children
consume on audio-visual media and are the guarantors of their well-being. Following ‘the principle of the best interests of the
child, which must prevail according to the Convention, society and families need to have access to information on audio-visual
contents before consumption to facilitate eectively choosing the content children can access (Nieto Tamargo, 2008).
is need and concern favours media content age ratings. According to Tur-Viñes (2020), ratings are helpful when they
incorporate a suitable age recommendation and information on content from a moral perspective, which “guarantees a
repertoire of information not only aimed at protecting, preventing or to warn, but also at prescribing aspects that contribute to
generating a positive audience experience”, provided that their ultimate freedom to choose is respected.
But how can we establish what contents are appropriate or not according to the children’s age? Most age ratings reect the
intellectual development stages of Piaget’s theory of evolutionary development (1981), which is also related to their biological
development. Several groups are established according to these: under 7, between 8 and 12-14 years of age, and over 14.
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However, all ratings in the audio-visual eld include another age group: up to 18. Audio-visual producers, families, psychology
and pedagogy professionals, educators and consumer associations classify this age group (Guadarrama Rico, 2007).
e media, specically the audio-visual media, have been favouring this age-based classication for decades. e “Hays Code”
was applied in Hollywood cinema between 1934 and 1967, just before the Motion Picture Association’s (MPAA, 1968) age
rating system was adopted. However, by far, the most regulated and researched media is television. A visual classication
system was created in Spain as early as 1963. It featured diamonds that appeared at the start of programmes, warning families
about violent or sexual content unsuitable for children. TVE’s Censorship Committee established two degrees: one diamond
for content for those over 14 and two diamonds for those over 18 (in the 1970s, the latter also included an audio classication).
is system remained in place until 1984. e nal decision regarding what minors could consume was handed over to families
in the midst of democracy (Tur-Viñes, 2020).
In 1989 the European Television Without Frontiers Directive was adopted- amended in 1997- to set out rules for the protection
of children (Tur-Viñes, Lozano Oyola, M., Romero Landa, 2008); it requires the Member States to steer away from broadcasting
programmes harmful to children’s physical, mental or moral development, specically programmes containing pornography
or gratuitous violence, or incitement to hatred on the grounds of race, sex, religion or nationality. Member states would
have to specify the directive and apply it in their country individually. Television Operators signed the Self Regulation Code
on Television Contents and Childhood in Spain in 2004, in which they attempted to match their legitimate economic (and
audience) objectives with the guarantees for minors in the Constitution. e code sets out guiding principles for evaluating
content and reinforces the protection of children by establishing specic slots per children’s television consumption habits.
is code was maintained until 2013 when the current code was implemented.
Law 7/2010, of March 31, General Audio-visual Communication Law (LGCA) determines that T.V. operators use a digital
encoding for age ratings that enable parental control based on the European directive. Again
,
parents have the ultimate
responsibility for choosing content. In 2010 the guiding principles for motion picture age ratings and other audio-visual works
were also specied; they are not to be interpreted as rules for automatic regulatory application but instead as a guide for the
Film Rating Commission of the
Instituto de la Cinematograa y de las Artes Audio-visuales
to “enable guidance for parents,
educators and others responsible for children, and professionals in the lm industry, radio or T.V. service providers and other
professionals who may be aected by the decision as to what lies behind a given rating for a lm in each case”. In Spain, lm
age ratings are adhered to even if lms are later broadcasted on other media, such as television.
Cinema and television have advanced regarding age ratings, while print and audio media lack similar content age ratings.
Videogames have given rise to a recognised and recognisable system: the Pan European Game Information System, popularly
known as PEGI, which 30 European countries have joined since 2003. It aims to protect children and help families make
informed decisions when purchasing video games. It was later extended to include the PEGI Online system for online video
games. It consists of a visual content code identifying content in the video game (violence, fear, explicit language, gambling,
sex, drug use or discrimination) and an age rating similar to television or cinema. Based on their criteria, content identied in
this way features on some video streaming platforms like Netix or HBO.
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We must reiterate that most television and digital media need to be funded through advertising, which also reaches children
and follows regulations. In Spain, the Self-Regulatory Code for advertising toys to Children (2011) classies three age groups
similar to those inspired by Piaget: up to 7, between 7 and 14, and between 15 and 18. ere is consensus on the special
protection of minors from advertising messages due to their immaturity, credulity, ease of persuasion and suggestion, making
them more vulnerable. From this perspective, advertising must be authentic, honest, loyal, legal and truthful. erefore
advertisements for children must refrain from incorporating messages that are discriminatory, violent, dangerous, anti-
environmental, sexual, anti-health, contain explicit language, etc. (Serrano-Maíllo, 2022). Again, advertising spaces are more
tightly regulated on television. In 2021 the CNMC and the Association for the Self-regulation of Commercial Communication
signed an agreement to promote coregulation for commercial communications on tv, updating the previous agreement.
It is worth reiterating the Audio-visual Communication Services Directive’s (2018) commitment to promoting media literacy
in all social sectors, ages and media so that citizens can make use of the media eciently and safely as a complement to the
regulatory codes endorsed by the media or the government over the last few decades.
3. Methodology
is research aims to frame, organise and systematise the criteria and indicators of the age rating models dened for television,
cinema, video streaming platforms and videogames in Spain, e UK, France, Germany, Italy and Portugal, countries whose
sociocultural and market structures- digital development, production environments, and audio-visual consumption rates- are
comparable (European Commission, 2019).
e starting premise is that given that connected terminals are the preferred devices for accessing digital leisure and
entertainment content –such as the data for Spain (AIMC, 2022, Figure 1)– and that the nature of the source media is
diminished (users, access lms, T.V. series and/or streaming platforms, entertainment programmes and video games on the
same screen), the guiding principles for convenience or potential harm to the child caused by all this content should have a
shared classication and visual and/or audio appearance.
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Figure 1. Internet access devices in Spain by users 14 and over (%)
UNIVERSO OBJETIVO
•
Usuarios de Internet de 14 o más años que visitan
sitios web españoles
dispositivo DE ACCESO A INTERNET (%)
MUESTRA DEL ESTUDIO
•
16.482 cuestionarios. Tras un proceso de
depuración,
la muestra útil nal fue de 15.623
USARON INTERNET AYER
•
En el estudio Navegantes en la Red
2021 – 98,8%
•
Según datos ociales del EGM,3
a
ola
2021, 14 y más años – 84,1%
Procendencia de la muestra
•
Banner o llamada a la participación en web, boletín electrónico o
publicidad exterior digital: 7.488 individuos
•
Entrevistados de Navegantes en la Red años anteriores: 5.242 individuos
•
Panel Dynata: 2.893 individuos
Perfil del encuestado
•
Más masculino, en edades más
laboralmente activas, acceden con más
frecuencia y más activos en internet que la
población internauta en general
•
Cada vez más maduros y más usuarios de
Internet
tipo de entrevista
•
Autoadministrada a través de Internet.
FECHAS RECOGIDA ENCUESTAS
•
Desde el 19 de octubre al 12 de diciembre de 2021
COLABORADORES
•
183 sitios web
•
39 perles en redes sociales
•
9 boletines electrónicos
•
JCDecaux / Exterior Plus
•
Smartclip
24º
DISPOSITIVO PRINCIPAL DE ACCESO A INTERNET (%)
Teléfono móvil
Ordenador sobremesa
Ordenador portátil
Tablet
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
2019
2020
2021
10,1
47,637,34,6
17,0
41,235,65,9
23,3
38,431,36,6
28,7
36,927,96,1
37,7
31,824,35,6
36,9
30,626,65,3
43,4
26,224,05,4
46,1
47,9
46,1
24,7
23,8
24,1
22,7
22,2
23,8
5,6
5,5
5,1
Teléfono
Móvil
92,5
72,0
52,0
47,5
15,1
35,3
10,8
13,8
5,6
6,5
TelevisorOrdenador
portátil
Videoconsola
sobremesa
Ordenador
sobremesa
SmartwatchTabletVideoconsola
portátil
Coche
conectado
Altavoz
inteligente
EL ALTAVOZ
INTELIGENTE COMO
DISPOSITIVO DE
ACCESO A INTERNET
(%)
7,1
2,1
12,2
15,1
2018
201920202021
Source: 24th survey Surfers on the Internet. IACM, 2022
However, the starting hypothesis is that the signalling of the suitability or content warning for children does not respond to the
same parameters either in each medium or in each of the countries analysed, whose classication models have not yet been
aligned with the new consumption habits. Technological convergence and digital connectivity expansion are trends (Jenkins,
2008). e work has used a qualitative methodology in which documentary and content analysis is applied to recognise the
object of study from the same approach for dierent data sets, allowing the information gathered to be veried (Denzin, 1978
and Opperman, 2000). In addition to the literature review, we explore the six chosen countries’ regulatory situation: Spain,
France, Portugal, Italy, the U.K. and Germany.
e analysis and systematisation of the guidance models have been articulated according to six variables: country, classication
system, control body, protection body, type of classication and mandatory compliance. By control body, we mean the
independent audio-visual regulatory authorities in each country according to the criteria adopted by the Council of Europe
(García Castillejo, 2006); protection bodies are the independent organisations created to safeguard the childhood consumption
of audio-visual products. e value that measures compliance with the guidance systems is that which establishes whether or
not, from a legislative perspective, the creator, producer or distributor is obliged to comply with it when putting the content
into circulation.
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4. Results
4.1. Cinema Classication criteria
Film age ratings in the European countries analysed are conferred to ministries, institutions or government-owned bodies
(Table 1):
e
Freiwillige Selbstkontrolle der Filmwirtschaft
(FSK) in Germany; e
Instituto de Cinematografía y Artes Audio-
visuales
(ICAA) in Spain; the
Centre National du Cinéma et de l’Image Animée
(CNC) in France (which also deals with T.V.
series, videogames and digital creation); the
Commissione per la Classicazione delle Opere Cinematograche
in Italy; the
IGAC,
Inspeção-Geral das Atividades Culturais
, through the
Comissão de Classicação de Espectáculos
in Portugal; and the
British Board of Film Classication
(BBFC) in the U.K.
ey agree on the guiding principles for each rating, especially regarding the protection of children and consumers. ey intend
to inform families about the age at which the lm content is considered unharmful to children’s psychological development
through age ratings. is information is established for lms in cinemas. However, in countries such as Germany or the U.K.,
age ratings appear on video, DVD or Blu-Ray and are distributed in digital cinema and on-demand services.
Film age ratings are mandatory, except in Germany, where it is voluntary. However, if a producer chooses not to apply FSK
supervision, the lm is automatically classied as an “adult lm”. Dierent people in each country determine the category that
each work ts into, and some legal professionals working in the eld of the protection of children in Germany or Italy.
e criteria for designing ratings vary in each country. However, the requirements are always based on the presence of verbal,
physical or psychological violence; fear-generating elements; nudity or sexual scenes: alcohol or drug consumption; smoking,
which can lead to addiction; or animal abuse. ere is a widespread consensus on protecting early childhood among the
countries analysed. However, some countries, such as Portugal, thoroughly distinguish ages in this age group, while Italy is
laxer.
e next milestone is the beginning of adolescence at 12, in which almost all the countries make a new division (Italy is an
exception because it incorporates a 6-14 age range). Most also agree on warning families about content for over 16s (except in
Italy: 14 and in the U.K.: 15); nally, the unanimous limit is 18 years of age in the analysed countries as it is the legal age and
adult content is presumed from that age onwards. Some lms can obtain additional classications for those over 18 due to the
content, such as in France, Spain (rated X), or the U.K. (R18).
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Table 1. Age content rating systems for lms for minors in Europe
CountryRegulationControl
Compliance Ages
SpainMCDICAAMandatory
TP, 7, 12, 16 and 18, X
ItalyMiCCCOCMandatory
T, 6, 12, 18
PortugalCPIGACMandatory
3, 4, 6, 7, 12, 16 and 18
GermanySPIOFSKVoluntary
TP, 6, 12, 16, 18
e U.K.
—BBFCMandatory
4, 8, 12, 15, 18, R18
FranceMCCNCMandatory
TP, 10, 12, 16, 18, X
Source: created by the authors
Age ratings are communicated visually via codes that combine age and a specic colour for each stage. ere is no international
consensus on colour use; however, the countries analysed employ similar colours. In all the countries, the code uses white
or green for early childhood, red for adult lms, and orange, yellow or blue for ages in between; there is a more signicant
disparity in colour used in this interval.
4.2. TV content rating criteria
T.V.’s gradual penetration and impact on children during the second half of the 20th century explains the precautions developed
by the public and educational institutions and the industry to protect this audience via television channels’ regulation and
self-regulation (Muñoz and Pedrero, 1996). Age rating codes and control in cinema are carried out dierently in the countries
analysed (Table 2).
e Oce of Communications (OFCOM) is an independent authority that regulates the radio and telecommunication
industries in the U.K. It species the protection regulations for under 18s in section 1 of its code, which includes the obligation
to air appropriate programming and outlines ways to deal with content featuring sexual oences involving minors, drug and
alcohol use, smoking, violence, nudity, exorcism and the paranormal and explicit language. No age rating is dened; therefore,
the reference for lms is BBFC. However, it sets out guidelines for children and adolescents’ participation in television
programmes and imposes a broad time slot (5:30-21:00) in which unsuitable content for children must not be aired. Two
independent bodies appointed by Parliament monitor these regulations: the Broadcasting Standards Council (BSC) and the
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Broadcasting Complaints Commission (BCC). e BSC reviews excessive violence, sexual scenes and taste and decency issues
(language and coverage of natural disasters or human tragedies), while the BCC reviews viewers’ complaints.
e
Conseil Supérieur de l’Audiovisuel
(CSA) was established in 1989 as a radio and television regulatory Authority in France
1989. It has since been taken over by the
Autorité de régulation de la communication audiovisuelle et numérique
(ARCOM) on
1 January 2022, a body that merges the CSA and the Haute Autorité pour la diussion des 1/2uvres et la protection des droits
sur Internet (HADOPI). Its course of action includes guaranteeing public access to a pluralistic oer while respecting rights
and freedoms and protecting young people and minors through television channels’ signposting. ere are four dierent
categories: -10 (programmes dealing with themes or containing scenes that may disturb minors), -12 (programmes containing
physical or psychological violence or adult sex scenes), -16 (erotic programmes or shocking violence) and -18 (pornographic
or highly violent programmes).
e Authority monitors television broadcasting for Guarantees in Communications (AGCOM) in Italy. is independent
body must guarantee fair competition and protect pluralism in the telecommunications, publishing, mass media and postal
media markets. Users can report to this Authority the possible presence of content detrimental to
human dignity or children’s
physical, mental or moral development or gratuitous, brutal or graphic violence featured in radio and television broadcasts
on any platform. erefore there is no specic code setting out age ratings on Italian television. However, chromatic warning
symbols are widespread: green represents content suitable for all audiences, yellow suggests parental guidance, and red is for
programmes recommended for adult viewers.
Individual federal states are responsible for organising radio and television broadcasters; each State sets out the fundamental
programming principles, what content, information duties and other requirements are permitted for children. Although no
code is explicitly dened, most channels use ve labels: 0-white (content suitable for all the family), 6-yellow (content not
recommended for children under 6); 12- green (content not recommended for children under 12); 16- blue (content not
recommended for children under 16) and 18- red (content not recommended for children under 18). ere is no consensus on
the details of dierent categories.
Portugal’s system is similar to Spain’s since the channels have been self-regulating potentially harmful content for children
since 2006. e public channel RTP and the private channels with the largest audience (SIC and TVI) apply a code with ve
categories: T-Todos (for all ages); 10- Aconselhamento parental (parental guidance is recommended for children under 10:
many soap operas have this rating); 12- Aconselhamento parental (parental guidance for children under 12); 16 (contents that
may be unsuitable for children under 16) and 18 (prohibited for children under 18). ese symbols must be shown for one
minute at the start of each programme and after each break. Also, content rated 16 and over can only be aired after 22:30 and
6:00.
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Table 2. T.V. content age rating systems in Europe
CountryRegulationControl
Compliance
Ages
SpainLGCACNMCMandatory
Especially recommended,
TP, 7, 12, 16, 18
ItalyAGCOM—Voluntary
T.P., parental guidance, adults
PortugalSelf-regulated—Voluntary
T, 10, 12, 16, 18
Germany
Decentralised
—Voluntary
0, +12, +16, +18
e UK
OFCOM
BSC / BCC
Mandatory
U (All), P.G. (Parental Guidance),
12, 15, 18, R18
FranceARCOMARCOMMandatory
10, 12, 16, 18
Source: created by authors
Licensee channels are partly responsible for content regulation in Spain. However, the Secretary of State for Telecommunications
and Digital Infrastructures reports to the Ministry of Economic Aairs and Digital Transformation and controls the content
of television broadcasts. e European Television Without Frontiers Directive for the protection of minors has been in force
since 1994 from 6 am to 10 pm. Operators signed the Television Self-regulation Code for children. Its age ratings followed the
classications assigned to lms by the ICAA: a) content especially recommended for children (ERI
,
purple); b) all audiences
(T.P., green); c) not recommended for children under 7 (blue); d) not recommended for children under 12 (yellow); e) not
recommended for children under 16 (orange), and f) not recommended for children under 18 (red). ere is a reinforced
protection range for children (up to 13), prohibiting programmes not recommended for them to be broadcast: Monday to
Friday, from 8 to 9 am and from 5 to 10 pm; Saturdays, Sundays and public holidays from 9 am to 12 pm.
e Audio-visual Communication General Law (LGCA) came into force in 2010 to regulate the Spanish television sector; it
includes the Self-Regulation Code and transposes the European Audio-visual Communication Services Directive (2007) into
Spanish law. e LGCA dierentiates between harmful content and unsuitable content for children. In 2015 the National
Commission on Markets and Competition (CNMC) approved the guiding principles for classifying audio-visual content. On
the one hand, it dened those especially recommended for children: a) designed for them; b) aimed at consolidating the
learning of school materials; d) promote values (responsibility, solidarity, respect, friendship, etc.); d) boost creativity; e)
aimed at education and pedagogy: and f) prevents or denounces drug, alcohol or other toxic substance abuse. On the other
hand, it details the content explicitly harmful to children based on eight themes (Table 3).
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Table 3. Denition of harmful content for children on T.V. (CNMC, Spain)
3.1. Violence
a) Physical or psychological violence
b) Human rights violations, gender and domestic violence
3.2. Sexual abuse
3.3. Gender
a) Nudity or undressing
b) Insinuation of sexual acts
c) Sexual acts without nudity
d) Sexual acts with nudity
e) Prostitution
f) Sadomasochism and sexual humiliation, paedophilia and bestiality.
3.4. Fear or distress
a) Severe emotional conicts or extreme fear-generating situations
b) Victims with severe injuries or death caused by accidents or catastrophes
c) Human bodies that generate fear or distress, ghosts and exorcism
d) Fantasy creatures with terrifying attitudes or behaviour
3.5. Drugs and toxic
substances
a) Manufacturing or stockpiling of illegal drugs
b) Alcoholism, use or distribution of illegal drugs
c) Drug addiction and its eects
d) Severe smoking
3.6. Discrimination
3.7. Imitable behaviour
a) Behaviours that severely impose on the rights of others
b) Corruption, vandalism of property, street violence
c) Lifestyle habits severely harmful to health
3.8. Language (written,
verbal, body language)
a) Violent expressions, provocations, insinuations or allusions to violence
b) Intolerant or discriminatory expressions
Source: created by the authors based on Criterios/DTSA/001/15 (CNMC)
4.3. Classication criteria for on-demand platforms
On-demand streaming platforms
have not agreed on a rating system for content; each adheres to a local expert’s rating whose
identity is not disclosed. ere is no joint control or protection body for monitoring content. It is also noted that there are
dierences in the regions: U.S. ratings are dierent from European ones, and there are even dierences among the six countries
analysed. On-demand audio-visual consumption has changed parental guidance. ey feature a function allowing the child’s
caretakers to monitor the child’s viewing by conguring it beforehand by entering their age and creating an access password.
us, the platform only features content corresponding to the age range of the prior classication.
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On-demand streaming platforms with the most reach in Spain in Q1 of 2022 were chosen for the analysis: Netix (58.1%);
Amazon Prime Video (51.4%), and HBO (24.7%), according to data from the consultancy Barlovento (2022). In addition, the
YouTube Kids application has been analysed to round out the study with a free access service, as it is the most used application
by children under 13 (Qustodio, 2021).
ere is no consensus on the content description, as shown in Table 4: Amazon Prime is the only platform that publicly shares
the age rating system according to the country where it operates. Moreover, it advises that “content containing violent acts or
explicit, graphic content of a sexual or recurring nature, gratuitous nudity or erotic themes (adult content)” will not feature in
its catalogue. Netix’s age ratings are established according to the frequency and impact of the restricted content in the lm
and the amount of violence, sex, adult language, nudity, or drug use that appears in it. It has a section for children’s content
selected by the platform. HBO sorts programming into two categories: HBO-Max and HBO-Kids: children can only watch
content suitable for all audiences or children’s content. e platform includes indicative age ratings but does not describe the
content. However, they guide families and children towards suitable content. e platform does not warn about very violent
content found on it.
Table 4: Content age ratings on on-demand streaming platforms for children in Europe
On-demand
streaming platform
Flagged content
Parental
control
CumplimientoEdades
Amazon Prime
Video
Profanity, sexual content, violence,
nudity, smoking/tobacco use, drug
use, etc.
YesVoluntary
7: older children
13: adolescents
16: young adults
18: adults
Netix
Content information by age
classication: sex, explicit language,
drug use, nudity
YesVoluntary
0, 7: Children
12: Adolescents
16, 18: Adults
HBO
Does not report
YesVoluntary
All ages
7, 10, 13, 16, 18
YouTube Kids
Violence, disturbing images, nudity,
sexually provocative content,
depiction of dangerous activities or
explicit language
YesVoluntary
Preschool
Young children
Older than 9 to 12
Source: created by the authors
YouTube Kids is an on-demand streaming channel for children on YouTube (Google, Alphabet), allowing parents to
congure content accessed by their children. ere are four age ratings: Preschool (up to 4), young children (5 to 8) and older
children (9 to 12). e platform ensures that it combines automatic lters developed by engineering teams using Articial
Intelligence combined with human revision and parents’ comments or recommendations. It also allows for limiting screen
time and blocking videos or content channels. YouTube Kids enables parents to track their children’s daily consumption. e
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monitoring and protection body for children is not publicly stated on the platform; the content features advertising except for
the premium version.
ere are only age ratings for paid content on YouTube: it is up to the content producers themselves to self-regulate without
the aggregator’s supervision, which restricts consumption for under-18s and only classies content unsuitable for children
that contains violence, disturbing images, nudity, sexually provocative content, depiction of dangerous activities and explicit
language, among others. Overall, on-demand lm and series platforms are not transparent about content monitoring and child
protection bodies’ warnings. However, they provide a tool for parental control so that adult caregivers can take responsibility
for what children consume.
4.4. Video game content rating criteria for video games
e Pan European Game Information system is the standardised content rating system for video games in the countries studied,
popularly known as PEGI. Classications are shared, although there are slight variations: for instance, Portugal introduces two
more variants (4 and 6). However, Europe is working in unison on controlling digital content in the video game sector. e
PEGI rating is represented through dual pictograms: suggested age and description of contents (explicit language, drugs, sex,
discrimination, etc.) e system is supervised by boards and committees such as the PEGI Council, comprised of national
representatives selected from parents’ organisations, consumers, child psychologists, media specialists, academics and legal
advisors from the eld of child protection. It includes the Legal Advisory Committee, the Expert Panel and the Complaints
Commission. Game producers, developers (PEGI users), and console manufacturers are represented on the Board, its highest
body. is structure “ensures adequate supervision while maintaining the self-regulatory strength of the system” (PEGI, 2022).
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Table 5. Videogame content rating systems for children in Europe
Country
SystemControlBody
Compliance
Classication/rating
SpainPEGICNMCINCIBEVoluntary
Suggested age:
3, 7, 12, 16, 18
Content warning:
Drug use, explicit lan
-
guage, fear, sex, violence,
gambling, discrimination,
online. PEGI OK
ItalyPEGIAGCOMGCMandatory
PortugalPEGIIGACPTSICVoluntary
GermanyPEGIUSKKLIKSAFEMandatory
e UK
PEGIVSCSICMandatory
FrancePEGIDGCCRFSIFMandatory
Source: created by the authors
irty-ve European countries and Israel use this system. It came into force in 2003 and was endorsed by the Interactive
Software Federation of Europe (ISFE), the body representing the European video game industry. Videogame content is
monitored by the independent Dutch Institute for the Classication of Audio-visual Media
(NICAM) and is based on the Dutch
Kijkwijzer
system
.
PEGI is not mandatory unless stipulated by national law –the U.K. and France do apply it– but the content
creator can use it voluntarily. e rating is obtained through a questionnaire that evaluates the content of each version of the
product.
PEGI’s online rating system automatically determines a provisional rating with content descriptors based on the editors’
responses. PEGI administrators receive the game from the creator and thoroughly check the temporary age label. NICAM is in
charge of rating games for 3 to 7 years old, while the VSC Rating Board (the regulatory body from the U.K. part of PEGI) revises
the 12, 16 and 18 age ratings. Depending on the review, the administrators approve or modify the provisional rating and PEGI
issues a license to the creator for the use of the age rating icon and relevant content descriptors: a summary of the type of
content, suggested age labels and pictograms (Table 5).
According to the PEGI Labelling Icon guidelines and Code of Conduct, the creator can use the age rating symbol and appropriate
content descriptors on the packaging or at the digital point of sale. is system applies to videogames sold in physical stores
and the Internet, magazine discs and those downloaded online. An online PEGI rating system has been established for these
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purposes. e PEGI rating system is the most widely agreed upon due to its tight monitoring by authorised child protection
bodies; its criteria and pictograms are intuitive and easily interpreted by all audiences.
5. Conclusions and discussion
It is now more than half a century since social concern about the relationship between children and the media has led to
protection initiatives from dierent spheres. ese include media regulation regarding the potentially harmful eects
on children, both in the conventional television industry and in new online services that have emerged as a result of the
consolidation of the Internet and digital distribution of leisure and entertainment content accessible to children (Ortiz-
Sobrino, Fuente-Cobo and Martínez-Otero, 2015).
e focus on analysing age rating and signalling systems, especially television, has gone through dierent stages in academic
research. Even though, per European regulations, this issue has been one of the axes of the policy adopted in Spain regarding
the protection of minors, initial studies were very general and, above all –as Núñez Ladevéze (2012) explains– concentrated
on the rst decade of the century, a time when the audio-visual industry developed considerably beyond television around
the world.
e work by Tur-Viñes (2008, 2016 and 2020) and the analysis by Ortiz-Sobrino, Fuente-Cobo and Martínez-Otero (2015) at
the request of the Federation of Associations of Media Consumers and Users (iCmedia) are noteworthy, among others. Several
research groups (CEU San Pablo, Villanueva University, URJC and UCIII) combined their work in the PROCOTIN project to
study children’s relationship with television. However, despite the need to protect minors from consuming certain products
that have been shown to interfere with children’s development (CAA, 2008), there is still no unied criteria or projection for
the new audio-visual actors to create and stream on-demand content.
It is noted that some codes use an evaluative rating and classication system, i.e. they are limited to age recommendations.
However, other countries add more complex descriptive models which provide information in addition to age, warning parents
and educators about the presence of certain types of content (violence, sex, explicit language, etc.), as is the case with video
games and the PEGI code. is is the most comprehensive content rating system for children: it is backed by experts, endorsed
by the manufacturer and accepted by consumers. At the other extreme, on-demand platforms do not use unied criteria, and
the consumption of unsuitable content for children only provides the imperative solution of parental controls with insucient
recommendation guidelines.
e T.V. Parental Guidelines incorporate an age recommendation and a series of contextual data as abbreviations as a reference
for the United States, territory other than those analysed in this research. e abbreviations are the following: D (suggestive
dialogue), L(explicit language), S (sex scenes), V (violence) and F.V. (fantasy violence). In Europe, the Netherlands has dened
a standard classication model for television, lm and online platforms involving the State, the independent Authority for
audio-visual regulation and the prestigious Dutch Institute for the Classication of Audio-visual Media (NICAM). Both systems
can be considered for redesigning the models studied.
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e standardisation of the Internet on a global scale and the proliferation of devices and access platforms for convergent
access pose a challenge for the industry. It no longer seems reasonable to maintain criteria and watertight compartments
for evaluating the products circulating in each environment, especially since television, once the dominant media, is losing
hegemony in sharing content to the benet of other media. In this sense, this research has identied the audio-visual content
age rating systems most found in analogue and digital consumption diets to compare them and search for a uniform proposal
that allows access to minors in a targeted way without undermining freedom of expression and information.
If age ratings are agreed on with producers, they turn into a tool for informing guardians, minors and society as a whole
about potentially harmful content to facilitate informed and responsible decision-making; so why does the Audio-visual
Communication Law only detail television content, despite article 1 of the Audio-visual Communication Services Directive
specifying that content must be dealt with regardless of transmission means: (terrestrial airwaves, satellite, cable, Internet
T.V., websites, mobile applications). Who is responsible for broadcasting by other media? Alboronoz (2009) argues: Who has
the duty and social responsibility for establishing the relationship between certain audio-visual products and age groups? Is it
government authorities? Should the production and distribution companies be responsible? Is it possible for responsibility to
fall on inuential social groups or professional collectives?
e contemporary media reality invites us to go beyond classication systems for one media (Tur-Viñes, 2020). is system
made sense when the hegemony of television prevailed but is no longer sustainable in the face of the emergence of digital
media that create content available to vulnerable audiences who escape adult supervision as they access connected devices at
an earlier age. If the countries studied have reached a consensus on age ratings for video games with all the actors involved, a
road map should be promoted to unify mandatory criteria equally for the rest of the digital content.
is study aims to facilitate an academic and social debate between the actors responsible for classications in the countries
studied. e objective is rst to reach control bodies to reach a consensus on a single system of recommendations, which
could also be applied to audio content (radio, podcast, digital books, social audio, etc.). e limitations of its application will
be conditioned by whether the proposal is accepted by all actors involved.
Many voices have warned for some time that “there is an urgent need to become aware of the new reality in which children
are developing” (Blanco Alfonso, 2011, p. 29). e challenge does not seem easy to address. Still, it cannot be put o, as the
guidelines and criteria for access to audio-visual content shape a healthy, critical and responsible consumer culture in the
present and future digital society.
6. Acknowledgements
Article translated into English by Sophie Phillips.
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7. Specic contributions by each author
Name and Surname
Conception and work design Rebeca Martín-Nieto, Laura Martínez Otón and, Luis Miguel Pedrero
Methodology
Rebeca Martín-Nieto, Laura Martínez Otón and, Luis Miguel Pedrero
Data collection and analysisRebeca Martín-Nieto, Laura Martínez Otón and, Luis Miguel Pedrero
Discussion and conclusionsRebeca Martín-Nieto, Laura Martínez Otón and, Luis Miguel Pedrero
Drafting, formatting, revision and version approvalsRebeca Martín-Nieto, Laura Martínez Otón and, Luis Miguel Pedrero
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9. Glossary
Organisations involved in the age rating systems for lms
AcronymCountryOrganisations
BBFC
e U.K.British Board of Film Classication
CCOCItaly
Commissione per la Classicazione delle Opere Cinematograche
CNCFrance
Centre National du Cinéma et de l’Image Animée
CPPortugal
Ministerio de Cultura
FSKGermany
Freiwillige Selbstkontrolle der Filmwirtschaft
ICAASpain
Instituto de Cinematografía y Artes Audio-visuales
IGACPortugal
Inspeção-Geral das Atividades Culturais
MCFrance
Ministère de la Communication et de la Culture
MCDSpain
Ministerio de Cultura y Deporte
MICItalia
Ministerio della Cultura
SPIOGermany
Spitzenorganisation der Filmwirtschaft
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doxa.comunicación |
nº 36, pp. 359-379
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January-June of 2023
Rebeca Martín-Nieto, Laura Martínez Otón and Luis Miguel Pedrero Esteban
ISSN: 1696-019X / e-ISSN: 2386-3978
379
Organisations involved in the age rating systems for television
AcronymCountryOrganisations
AGCOMItaly
Autorità per le Garanzie Nelle Comunicazioni
ARCOMFrance
Autorité de regulation de la communication audiovisuelle
BCC
e U.KBroadcasting Comapints Commission
BSC
e U.K.Broadcasting Standars Council
CNMCSpain
Comisión Nacional del Mercado de la Competencia
LGASpain
Ley General de la Comunicación Audio-visual
OFCOM
e U.KOce of Communications
Organisations involved in the age rating systems for video games
AcronymCountryOrganisations
AGCOMItaly
Autorità per le Garanzie Nelle Comunicazioni
CNMCSpain
Comisión Nacional del Mercado de la Competencia
DGCCRFItaly
Direzione generale della concorrenza, consumo e controllo delle frodi
GCItaly
Generazione Connesse
IGACPortugal
InspeÇao Geral de Atividades Culturais
INCIBESpain
Instituto Nacional de ciberseguridad
KLICKSAFEGermany
Klick Safe
PTSICPortugal
Centro Portugués de Internet Segura
SIC
e U.KSafer Internet Centre