Gender stereotypes and social networks: consumption of inuencer-
generated content among pre-adolescents and adolescents
Estereotipos de género y redes sociales: consumo de contenido generado por
inuencers entre los preadolescentes y adolescentes
doxa.comunicación |
nº 38, pp. 81-97
| 81
January-June of 2024
ISSN: 1696-019X / e-ISSN: 2386-3978
How to cite this article:
Martín-Cárdaba, M. A.; Lafuente-Pérez, P.; Durán-Vilches, M. and Solano-Altaba, M. (2024). Gender stereotypes and social networks: consumption
of inuencer-generated content among pre-adolescents and adolescents.
Doxa Comunicación
, 38, pp. 81-97.
https://doi.org/10.31921/doxacom.n38a2034
Miguel Ángel Martín-Cárdaba.
European PhD in Communication from Complutense University of Madrid, and Full
Professor by ANECA. Author of several articles in national and international journals, his research focuses on the eld
of Social Psychology of Communication. Specically, he focuses on the study of the possible eects of the media and
especially in the study of all those persuasive communication (advertising campaigns, political campaigns, social
communication campaigns, etc.) and the psychological processes that underlie them.
University Villanueva, Spain
[email protected]
ORCID: 0000-0003-3897-2537
Myriam Durán-Vilches. S
ocial researcher with an extensive professional career in institutions and consumer companies
and associate professor at the Complutense University of Madrid in the faculty of Political Science and Sociology. For
more than 15 years, she has focused her activity on the development of online qualitative methodologies, a eld in
which she has been one of its precursors. She has a degree in Sociology and Political Science from the Complutense
University of Madrid and a PhD in Journalism. Her lines of research are focused on the analysis of Internet as a tool for
social discourse in three aspects: the behaviour of the informant subject in digital contexts, the keys to the development
of digital interaction and the facilitation of the use of graphic and audiovisual languages.
University Villanueva, Spain
[email protected]
ORCID: 0000-0002-7239-2846
is content is published under Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial License. International License CC BY-NC 4.0
Patricia Lafuente-Pérez.
PhD in Communication and degree in Journalism from the University of Navarra. Accredited
as Associate Professor by ANECA (Spanish National Agency for Quality Assurance and Accreditation). She teaches
Sociology, Public Opinion and Social and Political Marketing at the University Villanueva. She is also a member of the
research group “Villanueva de Comunicación Social y Análisis de Medios”, with the project Provuldig2 of the Comunidad
de Madrid. He has published articles in prestigious indexed academic journals. In addition, she has written books and
chapters in publishers such as Tecnos, Fragua and Tirant lo Blanch. She has been a researcher, among others, in the
group “Communication, journalism, politics and citizenship”, of the Government of Aragon (2014-2019). She has also
participated in various research projects and professional and academic associations.
University Villanueva, Spain
[email protected]
ORCID: 0000-0002-5556-3228
<p>[Enlace de URL / hc (has AS)]</p>
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Gender stereotypes and social networks: consumption of inuencer-generated content among pre-adolescents...
ISSN: 1696-019X / e-ISSN: 2386-3978
doxa.comunicación
Received: 14/07/2023 - Accepted: 28/11/2023 - Early access: 18/12/2023 - Published: 01/01/2024
Recibido: 14/07/2023 - Aceptado: 28/11/2023 - En edición: 18/12/2023 - Publicado: 01/01/2024
Abstract:
Internalization of gender stereotypes begins as early as adolescence
and preadolescence. Among all the factors involved in their adoption
and assimilation, social networks and inuencers currently stand out.
Given that minors start consuming social network content at a very
early age, inuencers have become role models for them. erefore,
this research aims to examine the preferences and behaviors of minors
on social networks regarding their favorite inuencers and to detect to
what extent they might reinforce pre-existing gender stereotypes. To
this end, a survey (condence level <95% and ±3.5% sampling error)
has been carried out on 800 Spanish minors between 8 and 16 years
of age and regular consumers of content generated by inuencers.
e results showed that boys and girls tend to follow inuencers with
dierent proles, devote unequal amounts of time to this activity, and
show preferences for dierent social networks and dierent types of
content. ese results lead to the conclusion that there is a generalized
tendency to reproduce behaviors and preferences associated with
traditional stereotypes about the male and female genders.
Keywords:
Gender; inuencers; minors, social media; stereotypes.
Resumen:
La interiorización de los estereotipos de género comienza en una eta
-
pa tan temprana como la preadolescencia y la adolescencia. Las redes
sociales y los inuencers destacan entre todos los factores involucra
-
dos en su adopción y asimilación. Dado que los menores comienzan a
consumir contenido en redes sociales muy pequeños, los inuencers se
han convertido en modelos de referencia para ellos. La presente inves
-
tigación tiene por objetivo examinar las preferencias y comportamien
-
tos de los menores en redes sociales respecto a sus inuencers favoritos
y detectar hasta qué punto pueden reforzar los estereotipos de género
preexistentes. Con este objetivo, se ha llevado a cabo un cuestionario
(nivel de conanza <95% y error muestral +-3,5%) entre 800 menores
españoles de 8 a 16 años, consumidores habituales de contenido creado
por inuencers. Los resultados de la encuesta muestran que los niños y
adolescentes tienden a seguir inuencers con diferentes perles, dedican
una cantidad de tiempo desigual a esta actividad y muestran preferen
-
cias por diferentes redes sociales y tipos de contenidos. Estos resultaron
conducen a la conclusión de que hay una tendencia generalizada a re
-
producir comportamientos y preferencias asociadas con los estereotipos
tradicionales masculino y femenino.
Palabras clave:
Género, inuencers, menores, redes sociales, estereotipos.
1. Introduction
Gender stereotypes not only describe typical dierences between men and women but also prescribe what men and women
should be and how they should behave in dierent life domains (Ellemers, 2018). Gender stereotypes have an impact on how
men and women dene themselves and are treated by others because they inuence how people pay attention to, interpret,
and recall information about themselves and other individuals. erefore, by encouraging people to treat men and women
dierently, stereotypes help to create and maintain these distinctions (Solbes-Canales
et al
., 2020).
María Solano-Altaba.
PhD. in Journalism from CEU San Pablo University, where she is an associate professor,
accredited by ANECA, and teaches Communication eory, Rhetoric and Ethics and Deontology. Her main lines of
research include socialization and media literacy, communication ethics, and the problems of disinformation. She
is currently participating in the competitive project “Provuldig2-CM. New scenarios of digital vulnerability: media
literacy for an inclusive society” (Ref.: H2019/HUM-5775). She combines her teaching and research activity with the
professional practice of journalism in the direction of the magazine Hacer Familia and regular collaborations in the
newspaper El Debate.
University CEU San Pablo, Spain
[email protected]
ORCID: 0000-0002-1489-0695
<p>[Enlace de URL / hc (has AS)]</p>
<p>[Enlace de URL / hc (has AS)]</p>
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Children develop stereotypes about gender and internalize the traditional gender roles that prevail in society from an early
age (Jackson, 2007). Consequently, their academic achievement, their view of their own talents (regardless of their actual
abilities), and their personal, vocational, and professional aspirations may all be signicantly impacted by this internalization
(Kollmayer
et al
., 2018).
e interiorization of these stereotypes takes place through dierent factors, among which social interaction (Lieper &
Friedman, 2007) and the media (Gallagher, 2013; Gauntlett, 2008; Ward & Grower, 2020) stand out. Today, the relationship
of preadolescents, adolescents and young people with the media have been transformed by social networks that integrate
characteristics of the media and social interaction at the same time (Rideout
et al
., 2021). Consequently, these social networks
constitute an important scenario where they begin to congure their identity, including their gender identity. It is in this
context where the gure of the new inuencers (content creators in social networks who are admired and considered as
prescribers and referents by their followers) emerges as agents of special interest (Pérez-Torres,
et al.
, 2018).
us, even though the inuencers’ relationship with their younger followers has been studied mainly from the point of view of
commercial impact (e.g., De Veirman
et al.
; 2019; Feijoo & Sádaba, 2021) or regarding their inuence on dierent consumption
habits (Falzone
et al.
, 2017; Smit
et al
., 2020), recent research has begun to pay attention to how the relationship with their
favorite inuencers can be a relevant channel through which gender roles and stereotypes are perpetuated and transmitted
(Arias -Rodriguez & Sánchez-Bello, 2022; Castillo-Abdul
et al
., 2020). However, although it is relevant to study how the contents
created by these new communicators might reproduce gender stereotypes, it is equally necessary to understand the way in
which minors relate to and consume such content according to their gender and age.
Some previous research (e.g., García
et al.
, 2021; Serrate-González
et al
., 2023) have examined the behavior of adolescents with
respect to social networks in general but, to our knowledge, there hasn’t been any research that focuses on their preferences
with respect to content generated specically by their favorite inuencers. In addition, most research has examined the
behavior of adolescents and young adults (Oberst
et al
., 2016a), but those that have focused on earlier stages, such as pre-
adolescence, are almost nonexistent. is aspect is particularly relevant since, as the most recent data indicate, the age of onset
in the use of mobile devices and social networks in Spain has advanced even before nine years old (ONTSI, 2022). In this sense,
the main objective of this research is to explore the habits and behaviors of preadolescents and adolescents regarding their
favorite inuencers to examine whether they show dierences in expressing their preferences for dierent inuencer proles
and content depending on their gender and age.
1.1. Gender identity, media and social networks
Gender stereotypes can be dened as beliefs about specic features, physical characteristics, role behaviors, and occupations
that distinguish how men and women are (descriptive beliefs) or should be (prescriptive or proscriptive beliefs) (Leaper,
2015). For example, men are thought to exhibit more assertiveness and performance, whilst women are thought to exhibit
greater communality and friendliness. In addition, men and women usually work in dierent professions and assume dierent
caretaking roles (Ellemers, 2018).
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Gender stereotypes, which are internalized from a very early stage of life (Leaper, 2015), can have socializing implications for
children’s development. For example, while toys “for girls” promote nurturing behavior, toys “for boys” emphasize the practice
of spatial skills and mental rotation (Wong & VanderLaan, 2020). As a result, male stereotypes may prevent boys from playing
with toys that encourage their nurturing traits and help them develop their sociocognitive skills, increasing the likelihood that
they will experience emotional maladjustment in the future (Jones
et al
., 2015). Likewise, girls tend to perceive themselves as
less competent in science-related elds (OECD, 2020), which may lead them not to pursue careers in scientic and technical
elds.
e messages that young children receive about the importance of activities and behaviors that are appropriate for each gender
come from various socialization agents such as family members, peers and, in modern societies, the media (Ward & Grower,
2020). Specically, the media continuously present a collection of images about men and women that, as previous literature
shows, has an impact on the identities of younger viewers (Kumari & Joshi, 2015). Television (Zayer
et al
.; 2012), advertising
(Eisend, 2019; Cárdaba
et al.
, 2022), and video games (Melzer, 2018) transmit stereotypes about how men and women seem to
behave and how, especially, younger audiences accept referents and absorb them through the mechanisms of imitation and
reinforcement, thus forging the foundations of their future identities (Leaper, 2015).
Currently, the shaping of gender self-concept cannot be fully understood without addressing the relationship of young people
with new information technologies (Popa & Gavriliu, 2015) since they have become essential elements in their leisure activities
and individualization and socialization practices (INJUVE, 2021).
us, although some studies (Faulkner
et al
, 2007) indicate that there is a persistent “gender gap” in terms of fewer women
working in ICT, regarding the frequency of use of the internet and social networks, data indicate that among Spanish young
people there is not properly speaking a “gender gap”, something that occurs in other age groups (INE, 2021; Siddiq & Scherer,
2019; Cai
et al.
, 2017). In the case of all Spanish minors between 10 and 15 years of age, it can be said that the use of the internet
and social networks is universalized as 98% of children use it on a regular basis (ONTSI, 2022).
However, men and women interact dierently with these new technologies and their motivations tend to be dierent (Quazi
et al
., 2022; Tieret, 2020). For example, while men’s use is mainly leisure oriented or has a pragmatic purpose, women tend
to use them to connect and socialize, tending to express more emotions and reveal more personal information (Bond, 2009;
Haferkamp,
et al
. 2012). Also, women tend to show more concern regarding safety than men (Tieret, 2019) and adolescents
tend to perceive dierent risks on the internet depending on their gender (Steinfeld, 2022).
Although these new technologies are transforming the way in which gender roles are represented, dealt with and transmitted,
at the same time research suggests that they reproduce stereotypical practices and images (e.g., Gurrieri & Drenten, 2019).
For example, Choi
et al
. (2018) found that in many cases, gender stereotypes were replicated by parents on Instagram posting
pictures of their kids doing gender-typical things (girls were portrayed in fashion/creative/educational roles and boys were
portrayed in athletic/playful roles) and dressed in gender-typical ways (the most common color of clothing for girls was
pink and the most common color for boys was blue). In this same vein, previous research has revealed that male and female
Instagram users’ seles not only reect traditional gender stereotypes but are even more stereotypical than magazine adverts
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(Döring
et al.
, 2016). In addition, women who incorporate and exaggerate gender displays in their seles tend to receive more
positive feedback from their followers (Butkowski
et al
., 2020).
However, regarding adolescent behavior, Oberst
et al
., (2016a) found that while adolescents are aware of conventional
stereotypes, they perceive themselves in a less stereotypical and more sexually undierentiated way, both in their self-
perception and in the way they present themselves in a social network, than when they perform the same exercise with respect
to an adult of the same gender. But the extensive visibility and exposure of these networks generate an environment of high
public surveillance that often translates into young people, especially females, attempting to not deviate from gender norms
and reproducing pre-established practices and roles (Bailey,
et al.
, 2013; Oberst
et al
., 2016b).
1.2. Inuencers
and their socializing role in pre-adolescence and adolescence networks
As a consequence of the dual role of consumer and content generator that social network users can adopt, new actors have
emerged who professionalize their actions and exert inuence on other individuals, thus becoming referents, prescribers, and
opinion leaders (Vrontis
et al
., 2021).
One of the factors that help to explain the capacity of inuence of these gures can be found in the asymmetrical bond that
followers develop with respect to their inuencers over time and that has received the term,
parasocial relationship
(Liebers
& Schramm, 2019). Inuencers share many aspects of their personal lives (friends, hobbies, activities, leisure, work, etc.)
creating a sense of friendship between them and their followers. Moreover, as Lou (2022) points out, unlike traditional media,
it is even possible to speak of a
trans-parasocial relationship
since these new channels do allow a two-way relationship when
the inuencer can have, when he/she so chooses, a personal and individualized interaction with their followers.
Given that at present the consumption of social networks begins in many cases in pre-adolescence, these minors (or
tweens
)
are also exposed to social media inuencers. Moreover, as they are in a phase of identity and personality formation, their
position is even more vulnerable (Hoek
et al
., 2020). e fact that many successful inuencers are themselves young –and
some underage– facilitates the emergence of admiration and identication on the part of their followers, thus becoming role
models (Aran-Ramspott,
et al
., 2018). For all these reasons, beyond their commercial and social impact, increased attention is
beginning to focus on the role that inuencers have in the development and construction of their followers’ identities (Pérez-
Torres
et al
., 2018), including gender (Martínez & Olsson, 2019). However, more research is needed on how minors’ networking
behavior and the type of content and referents they follow inuence their gender socialization process.
us, recent investigations have begun to explore whether top inuencers may be reecting gender stereotypes through their
behaviour or conveying ideas that consciously or unconsciously perpetuate them. In this sense, dierent content analyses have
revealed that many inuencers still transmit stereotypical ideas about beauty, for example (Arias-Rodriguez & Sánchez-Bello,
2022). Similarly, Castillo-Abdul
et al.
, (2020), found that, among the top kid inuencers, the content and the activities typically
performed by male youtubers (such as gameplay) were signicantly dierent from those performed by female youtubers (e.g.,
lifestyle and fashion).
However, while it is important to explore how these new communicators’ contents may reinforce gender stereotypes, it is also
important to understand how minors relate to and consume such content according to their gender and age. therefore, more
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research is needed on how minors’ networking behaviour and the type of content and referents they follow might inuence
their gender socialization process.
2. Objectives
e main objective of the present work is to examine the preferences and behaviors that adolescents and preadolescents have
on social networks regarding their favorite inuencers and the type of content they consume to identify possible relevant
factors that may play a role in the process of socialization of their gender identities. In this way, the aim here is to determine
whether new practices related to gender expression are carried out in the networks or whether, on the contrary, habits that
perpetuate most widespread stereotypes about masculinity and femininity are reproduced.
Specically, our research aims to answer the following questions:
1. Do tweens and teens show preferences for male or female inuencers based on their own sex?
2. Are there dierences, depending on the sex, among tweens and teens with respect to the time they spend following and
consuming content created by their favorite inuencers?
3. Are there dierences, depending on the sex, among tweens and teens in the type of favorite inuencer content they
consume most frequently?
4. Are there dierences, depending on the sex, among teens and tweens in terms of the type of social network in which they
follow their favorite inuencers most frequently?
5. Are there dierences, depending on the sex, minors with respect to their desire to become inuencers themselves?
6. Do these possible sex dierences vary according to age (pre-adolescence vs. adolescence)?
3. Methodology
3.1. Sample and procedure
To answer to the investigation questions and the achievement of the objectives, a survey was carried out, as a quantitative
technique that allows the researchers to obtain information from a population sample through a standardized questionnaire
(Corbetta, 2023). e design of this questionnaire had in account the categories of types of contents in social media previously
used in some other research projects (Feijoo & Sádaba, 2021; García
et al
., 2021).
To be exact, 800 minors aged 8 to 16 years (Mean age = 12.33,
SD
= 2.38) participated voluntarily in a survey (Corbetta, 2023). In
exchange for a nancial reward, they had to ll in an online self-administered questionnaire with the CAWI system (Computer
Assisted Web Interviewing), prepared by a market research and surveys company. Questions were asked to get information
(sex, age, autonomous community of residence) so that it can help to stablish socio-demographic characteristics of the sample.
Quotas were set by sex and age: 200 boys aged 8 to 12 years, 200 girls aged 8 to 12 years, 200 boys aged 13 to 16 years, and 200
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girls aged 13 to 16 years. e sampling error was ± 3.52% with a condence level of 95.5%. e participants were selected from
the 17 Spanish autonomous communities.
All participating minors had the consent of their parents and only those who had previously conrmed that they regularly
followed inuencers were selected. e survey was divided into two parts, one for parents/guardians and one for minors.
Once the part for the parents was completed, they were instructed that it was their children who should answer the survey
autonomously and independently, although they had permission to assist the minors in case, they had any questions.
3.2. Instruments and measures
Time spent consuming inuencer content on social networks:
To estimate the time that children spend consuming content
generated by their favorite inuencers, we asked both children and parents to independently reect their own estimates.
Specically, parents reported the time they considered their son/daughter spent following inuencers on weekends, on the
one hand, and on school days, on the other. Response options included 1 (no time), 2 (0-30 minutes), 3 (30-60 minutes), 4
(60 min-2 hours), 5 (2-3 hours), 6 (3-4 hours), 7 (more than 4 hours). Each participant received a score reecting their child’s
weekday (
M
= 3.0,
SD
= 1.34), weekend (
M
= 3.84,
SD
= 1.37) and total (
M
= 3.41,
SD
= 1.23) consumption time. Higher scores
indicated higher consumption.
Similarly, we asked minors to make their own estimates for weekend and school days. We used the same response options as
with parents and created a score reecting their weekday (
M
= 2.91,
SD
= 1.18), weekend (
M
= 3.79,
SD
= 1.34), and total (
M
=
3.35,
SD
= 1.15) consumption time.
Favorite inuencer
: Participants identied their favorite inuencer by writing their name, as well as the inuencer’s estimated
age and gender.
Social network
: Participants registered on the social network (or networks in the case of more than one) in which they most
frequently followed content from their favorite inuencer. e response options were: 1) YouTube; 2) Instagram; 3) TikTok; 4)
Twitch; and 5) Other.
Content type
: Participants recorded the types of content from their favorite inuencer that they viewed most frequently. e
response options were: 1) fashion and beauty tips; 2) travel restaurants, parties, and lifestyle; 3) explanations about toys,
unboxing, and product testing; 4) dares and challenges; 5) jokes and humor; 6) online games and game play; 7) sports; 8)
music and dancing; and 9) other.
Desire to be an inuencer
: Participants expressed their degree of agreement/disagreement with the statement “I would like to
be an inuencer” on a 7-point scale: 1= strongly disagree, 7= strongly agree”.
4. Analysis and results
Consumption reported by parents
: When parents were asked about the total consumption (weekend + daily) of their children,
we found that those between 13 and 16 years of age spent more time (
M
= 3.61,
SD
= 1.25) than those between 8 and 12
years of age (
M
= 3.21,
SD
= 1.18) A parametric analysis of variance test (ANOVA) was performed to determine if there were
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signicant dierences between the means. e result obtained was that
F(
796) = 21.60,
p
< .001. In turn, when analyzing
possible dierences according to their sex, the data reveal that boys spend more time (
M
= 3.5,
SD
= 1.3) than girls (
M
= 3.33,
SD
= 1.16)
F
(796) = 3.82,
p
= .05, although these dierences diminish until they disappear in the older age group
p
> .05.
Weekend consumption
: With respect to consumption on weekends and holidays, there is also greater consumption among
older participants
F
(796) =
p
< .001, but in this case no signicant dierences are found between girls and boys
p
= .34.
Daily weekday consumption
: When analyzing consumption time on weekdays and school days, the data provided by the
parents show that, in addition to higher consumption by older participants
F
(796) = 18.82,
p
< .001, boys spend signicantly
more time (
M
= 3.12,
SD
= .41) than girls (
M
= 2.87,
SD
=1.27) consuming content generated by their favorite inuencers
F
(796)
= 6.94
p
= .009. However, the dierence occurs especially among younger subjects (8 to 12)
p
= .01 while it tends to disappear
with older ones (13 to 16)
p
= .20.
Consumption reported by minors
: When the minors under study are asked about their total consumption (weekend + daily),
the same two main eects are observed as with their parents’ responses. First, the data show that older participants spend
more time (
M
= 3.51,
SD
= 1.19) consuming content than younger ones (
M
= 3.18,
SD
= 1.09)
F
(796) = 16.36
p
< .001. Second,
marginally signicant sex dierences are also shown, with boys admitting to consuming content longer (
M
= 3.42,
SD
= 1.2)
than girls (
M
= 3.27,
SD
= 1.1)
F (
796) = 3.54,
p
= .06.
Weekend consumption
: As was the case with the estimate of parents, when participants reported their consumption time on
weekends, the analyses showed that there were no dierences according to sex
p
= .27. Likewise, there were dierences by age
with older participants (13 to 16 years old) showing higher consumption
F
(796) = 14.08
p
< .001.
Daily consumption during the week
: When analyzing the data provided by the minors with respect to school days, dierences
were again observed according to sex. Boys reported higher consumption (
M
= 3.01,
SD
= 1.20) than girls (
M
= 2.81,
SD
= 1.15)
F
(796) = 5.79
p
= .016. Finally, when dierences are analyzed according to age, these dierences are mainly found among
children aged 13 to 16 years,
p
= .05, but not among those aged 8 to 12 years,
p
= .13.
Favorite inuencer
: Even though some better-known inuencers (i.e., Ibai, el Rubius, Auronpley) were named more frequently
(12.9%, 12.8% and 5.1% respectively), the participants referred to a great variety and number of names (326) indicating a great
diversity of proles when identifying their favorite inuencer.
Age of the inuencer
: Likewise, the age range of the inuencers identied by the participants was very wide (from 6 to 60 years
old), although the mean was 26.19 (
SD
= 7.44). In turn, the data showed that older participants (13 to 16) tended to follow older
inuencers as well (
M
= 27.64,
SD
= 6.55) compared to younger participants (8 to 12) (
M
= 24.74,
SD
= 7.99
) t(
798) = -5.615,
p
< .001.
Sex of the inuencer
: Although in general there is a greater number of male inuencers (66.4%), the results showed that girls
tended to a greater extent to choose a female as their preferred inuencer (57.7%, compared to 42.2% who chose a boy),
while boys tended to choose male inuencers (91%) rather than female (9%). In the statistic test of chi-squared to show the
relation among variables, it was obtained that
X
2
(1) = 213.75,
p
< .001. ese preferences for inuencers of the same sex were
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maintained both in the segment of children aged 8 to 12 years
X
2
(1) = 103.423
p
< .001 and in those aged 13 to 16 years
X
2
(1) =
110.14
p
< .001.
Social network
: As seen in Table 1, the most followed social network regardless of sex and age is YouTube (68.8%), followed by
TikTok (39.9%) and Instagram (37.4%) practically on par, and lastly, Twitch (18.8%).
When we study which is the preferred network according to the sex of the participants, we observe that both YouTube (
X
2
(1) =
16.996,
p
< .001) and Twitch (
X
2
(1) = 14.474
p
<. 001) are primarily used by males, while Instagram is preferred by females (
X
2
(1)
= 3.338,
p
= .06). TikTok, however, is the only network where the presence of both sexes is practically undierentiated
X
2
(1) =
.881,
p
= .348. Likewise, with respect to age (8-12 and 13-16), the data show that YouTube is abandoned as the user grows older
while the following of the other networks, especially Twitch, increases in parallel with the age of the users.
On the other hand, when studying possible dierences according to sex within each age bracket, the results show that children’s
preference for YouTube is found both in the 8-12 age bracket,
X
2
(2) = 6.453,
p
=.011, and in the 13-16 age bracket,
X
2
(2) = 10.923,
p
=.001. Regarding Instagram, however, the highest use by girls only occurs in the 13 to 16 age bracket
X
2
(2) = 5.769,
p
=.016 but
not in the younger children (8 to 12)
X
2
(2) = .13,
p
=.91. As for Twitch, there is a greater use by boys between 8 and 12 years old,
X
2
(2) = 3.676,
p
=.05, and an even greater dierence in the boy’s older age bracket (13 to 16)
X
2
(2) = 11.446,
p
=.001. Finally, in
the case of TikTok, no sex dierences were found in either age bracket
p
>.05.
Table 1. Preferred social media
Sex Age
8 to 12 years 13 to 16 years
Boys Girls 8-12 13-16 Boys Girls Boys Girls
YouTube 75,5%**62,0% 75,0%**62,5% 80,5%* 69,5% 70,5%**54,5%
Instagram 34,3% 40,5%† 26,8% 48,0%**26,5% 27,0% 42,0% 54,0%*
TikTok 38,3% 41,5% 36,0% 43,8%* 32,0% 44,5% 40,0% 43,0%
Twitch 24,0%**13,5% 13,3% 24,3%**16,5%* 10,0% 31,5%**17,0%
Note: †
p
<.1; *
p
<.05; **
p
<.001 Source: prepared by the author
Types of content
: e most followed content regardless of gender and age, as can be seen in Table 2, are those where “jokes and
humor” are the protagonists (46.8%) and those dealing with “online games and gameplay” (42.5%), followed by videos about
“dares and challenges” (29.1%), “music and dancing” (27.4%) “fashion and beauty” (25.1%) and “travel, restaurants, parties
and lifestyle” (21.3%). Finally, we found equal content on “toys, unboxing, and product testing” (18.3%) and “sports” (18.3%).
When analyzed for sex dierences, the analyses revealed that “fashion and beauty” content
X
2
(1) = 84.84,
p
< .001, as well as
“travel restaurants and lifestyle”
X
2
(1) = 26.98
p
< .001 and “music and dance”
X
2
(1) = 56.74
p
< .001 are followed signicantly
more by the female audience, while contents focused on “jokes and humor”
X
2
(1) = 4.519
p
= .034 and especially “gameplay”
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X
2
(1) = 66.476
p
< .001 and “sports”
X
2
(1) = 34.318
p
< .001 were more followed by males. Finally, those based on “dares and
challenges” and those focusing on “toys, unboxing, and product testing” were equally consumed by both,
p
> .05.
On the other hand, when we analyzed the possible dierences in content consumption according to sex within each age group,
the results revealed that girls’ preferences for “fashion and beauty” content occurred both in the younger age group (8 to 12)
X
2
(2) = 32.009
p
< .001 and in the older age group (13 to 16)
X
2
(2) = 56.363
p
< .001. Similarly, the girls’ preference for content
dealing with “music and dance” was expressed both in the younger age group (8 to 12)
X
2
(2) = 40.073,
p
< .001 and in the older
age group (13 to 16)
X
2
(2) = 18.534,
p
< .001. However, girls’ preference for “travel, restaurants, parties and lifestyle” was present
in the younger 13- to 16-year-old bracket
X
2
(2) = 26.960,
p
< .001 but such a dierence was only marginal in the younger (8 to
12) bracket
X
2
(2) = 3.563,
p
=.059. In turn, the results showed a greater male preference for content about “online games and
gameplay” both for younger subjects
X
2
(2) = 31.818,
p
< .001 and for older subjects
X
2
(2) = 34.766,
p
< .001. e same happened
with respect to sports content; consumption was higher among boys regardless of whether they were in the younger age group
X
2
(2) = 11.960,
p
= .001 or the older age group
X
2
(2) = 22.939,
p
< .001. As for content focused on “jokes and humor”, boys show
marginally greater interest compared to girls in the oldest age bracket (13 to 16)
X
2
(2) = 2.902
p=
.08, but there is no dierence
between boys and girls among the youngest age groups (8 to 12)
X
2
(2) = 1.697
p
=.19. Finally, the analyses showed that the
interest of both boys and girls was similar in all age groups with respect to content dealing with both “dares and challenges”
and “toys, unboxing, and product testing”
p
> .05.
Table 2: Preferred Content Type
Sex
Age
8 to 12 years
13 to 16 years
Boys
Girls
8-12
13-16
Boys
Girls
Boys
Girls
Fashion and beauty 11,0% 39,3%** 16,5% 33,8%**
6,0% 27,0%** 16,0% 51,5%**
Travel, restaurants, and lifestyle 13,8%
28,8% **
13,8% 28,8%**
10,5% 17,0%† 17,0% 40,5%**
Toys and unboxing 19,5% 17,0% 22,8%** 13,8%
23,0% 22,5% 16,0% 11,5%
Challenges and dares 30,5% 27,8% 27,5% 30,8%
26,0% 29,0% 35,0% 26,5%
Jokes and humor 50,5%* 43,0% 46,8% 46,8%
50,0% 43,5% 51,0%† 42,5%
Game play 56,8%** 28,3% 44,0% 41,0%
58,0% 30,0%** 55,5%** 26,5%
Sports 26,3%** 10,3% 14,0% 22,5%*
20,0%** 8,0% 32,5%** 12,5%
Music and dances 15,5% 39,3%** 28,3% 26,5%
14,0% 42,5%** 17,0% 36,0%**
Note: †
p
<.1; *
p
<.05; **
p
<.001 Source: prepared by the author
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Desire to be an inuencer:
In this case, analyses showed that the aspiration to become an inuencer was relatively high
for participants overall (
M
= 5.15,
SD
= 1.66). Specically, most of the minors surveyed (69.6%) expressed a high degree of
agreement (scores = >5 on the 7-point Likert scale) and the desire to be an inuencer was similar between boys and girls
F
(796) = .14
p
= .73 independent of their age
F
(796) = .52
p
= .47.
5. Conclusions
e general goal of this study was to examine the habits and behaviors of preadolescents and adolescents in relation to their
preferred
inuencers
to identify any potential dierences depending on gender and age.
To this end, the present study examined the possible dierences according to sex with respect to the time of consumption, the
type of content consumed, the network used, and the prole of the favorite
inuencer
by the group of minors under study. In
addition, we wanted to know whether the possible dierences according to sex could vary, according to age (pre-adolescence
vs. adolescence).
Regarding the time spent consuming content generated by
inuencers
, the rst notable aspect is that there are hardly any
dierences between the estimates of their parents and those of the minors, increasing the reliability of the measure. As for
possible dierences based on sex, there is a greater dedication of time on the part of boys, especially on school days. It would
be of great interest if future research could explore both the causes (e.g., less parental control) and the possible consequences
of this increased dedication (e.g., less time devoted to studies).
It can also be concluded that the group of minors surveyed is signicantly attracted to
inuencers
of their same gender. is
conrms the similarity-attraction principle detected in previous research where they also showed how minors tended to
identify with their favorite youtubers in a manner congruent with their gender (Tolbert & Drogos, 2019). is parallelism is
also observed, although to a lesser extent with respect to age, with older interviewees claiming to follow older
inuencers
.
In addition, the data allows a characterization of the most-used social networks according to age and sex since the channel
for following
inuencers
varies when these two factors are considered. Specically, in line with previous research (Serrate-
Gonzalez, 2023), it can be armed that although there are social networks that are used by both sexes (TikTok) to follow their
preferred
inuencer
, there are others that are eminently masculine favored (Twitch, YouTube) or feminine (Instagram).
Regarding content, it is concluded that jokes and humor represent the most consumed type of content when gender is not
considered, which conrms similar results from previous research (Aran-Ramspott,
et al
., 2018). However, when analyzing the
data by sex, it is detected that girls are more interested in fashion and beauty, travel, restaurants, and lifestyle (especially as
they get older), as well as music and dance. Boys are more interested in gameplay, jokes and humor, as well as sports. e latter
content grows with age in all cases, but the gender gap remains.
Regarding the prole of the favorite
inuencer
, there are some common characteristics that allow us to speak of the “prototypical
inuencer
” prole for each gender and age group. us, it is possible to point out that, for children aged 8 to 12 years, it is, on
average, a 26-year-old male with a presence on YouTube who generates jokes/humor content or plays online games.
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For girls from 8 to 12, the average prole is a 24-year-old female who generates jokes/humor or music and dance content on
YouTube. If we look at the older age groups, we can see with respect to 13- to 16-year-olds, that the average prole of the typical
inuencer
is a 29-year-old male youtuber with content focused on online games or jokes/humor. Finally, for the segment
of girls aged 13 to 16, the average
inuencer
is a 27-year-old female with a presence on Instagram or YouTube who mostly
publishes fashion and beauty content. In addition, it can be concluded that, although boys follow more dened themes and
networks, there is a greater variety among girls. Considering everything mentioned before, it can be concluded that both girls
and boys are inclined towards the consumption of content traditionally related to their respective genders. is could suggest
that their behavior on networks reinforces the reproduction of gender stereotypes from as young as 8 years of age and that, in
addition, the dierences observed according to sex increase with age.
However, the present research has the limited aim of describing the behavior of content consume created by
inuencers,
so
future research is needed to understand in-depth the causes of this behavior, since this choice of content could have very
dierent origins (e.g., social pressure, shared interests with their group of friends, etc.). Likewise, longitudinal studies would
be desirable to understand the direction of the trend (regression, stability, or increase). At the same time, the results obtained
are the product of a cross-sectional study so it is limited to the observation of some variables at a certain time, so it would be
desirable to carry out longitudinal studies to understand the direction of the trend (regression, stability, or increase).
Finally, we can arm that within the members of the younger generation regardless of gender, there is a predominant desire
to emulate their referents and become future
inuencers
. is would serve to ratify, practically, and without any measure of
doubt, that these new opinion leaders have become signicant models and references for individuals of their ages.
6. Acknowledgements
e English version of this article has been reviewed by Tom Fieselmann to whom we are grateful for his work.
is work was supported by the project “New scenarios of digital vulnerability: Media literacy for an inclusive society”,
Provuldig2-CM program, Ref. H2019/HUM-5775, co-funded by the Community of Madrid and the European Social Fund.
7. Specic contributions of each author
Name and Surname
Conception and design of the workMiguel Ángel Martín-Cárdaba, Myriam Durán-Vilches and Patricia Lafuente-Pérez
Methodology
Myrian Durán, Miguel Ángel Martín Cárdaba and Patricia Lafuente-Pérez
Data collection and analysisMiguel Ángel Martín-Cárdaba
Discussion and conclusionsMiguel Ángel Martín-Cárdaba
and
Patricia Lafuente-Pérez
Drafting, formatting, version review and approvalMiguel Ángel Martín-Cárdaba, Patricia Lafuente-Pérez
and
María Solano Altaba
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8. Conict of Interests
e authors declare that there are no conicts of interest contained in this article.
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nº 38, pp. 81-97
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January-June of 2024
Miguel Ángel Martín-Cárdaba, Patricia Lafuente-Pérez, Myriam Durán-Vilches and María Solano-Altaba
ISSN: 1696-019X / e-ISSN: 2386-3978
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