Social media in conict coverage: journalists’ perceptions of the risks, opportunities, and impact on professional routinesLas redes sociales en la cobertura de conictos: las percepciones de los periodistas ante los riesgos, las oportunidades y el impacto en las rutinas profesionales doxa.comunicación | nº 40, pp. 67-87 | 67January-June of 2025ISSN: 1696-019X / e-ISSN: 2386-3978How to cite this article: Unda Endemaño, A. and Iturregui Mardaras, L. (2025). Social media in conict coverage: journalists’ perceptions of the risks, opportunities, and impact on professional routines. Doxa Comunicación, 40, pp. 67-87.https://doi.org/10.31921/doxacom.n40a2118Annette Unda Endemaño. Post-doctoral researcher in the Department of Journalism at the University of the Basque Country (UPV). Graduate in Journalism from the UPV/EHU (2018) with a Master’s in Social Communication (2019) from the same university. She has had a grant from the Basque Government for the Training of Non-PhD Research Personnel since 2020 in the Social Communication program. Her main line of research focuses on the practice of journalism during conicts, with a thesis on the professional proles, working conditions and security of Spanish war correspondents. She completed a three-month predoctoral stay (2021-2022) at the University of Munich (LMU). She currently forms part of the research project of the Spanish Ministry of Science and Innovation “Safety of Spanish journalists covering international conicts (JOSAFCON)”, valid between 2022 and 2026.University of the Basque Country UPV/EHU, Spain[email protected]ORCID: 0000-0003-2516-9841Leire Iturregui Mardaras. Senior Lecturer in the Department of Journalism at the University of the Basque Country (UPV). Graduate in Journalism and in Political and Administrative Sciences, specialised in International Relations. Her research lines are: conict journalism, institutional communication, the professional and working conditions of journalists, and gender, communication and education. Her doctoral thesis (2011) focused on embedded journalists, under the title "Origin and development of the relationship between journalists and military personnel during operations: e embedded system in Iraq 2003." She had a four-month research stay (2017) at the University of Munich (LMU), and as visiting professor (Erasmus) at the Université Sorbonne Nouvelle, in Paris (2021). She is co-director, together with María José Cantalapiedra, of the project "Safety of Spanish journalists covering international conicts: dening elements and analysis of their security before, during and after reporting (JOSAFCON)", nanced by the Ministry of Science and Universities (Spain) (2022-2026).University of the Basque Country UPV/EHU, Spain[email protected]ORCID: 0000-0001-9675-4218is content is published under Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial License. International License CC BY-NC 4.0

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68 | nº 40, pp. 67-87 | January-June of 2025Social media in conict coverage: journalists’ perceptions of the risks, opportunities, and impact on professional routinesISSN: 1696-019X / e-ISSN: 2386-3978doxa.comunicación1. IntroductionDigital technology and social media have inuenced journalists’ work and therefore, the work of conict journalists. Each conict has been marked by technological change (Iturregui, et. al., 2017; 2014). One of the key points was the Iraq War, where digital technology and the Internet played a very important role for the profession (Dimitrova & Nenanski, 2006; Sánchez, 2019). Apart from inuencing communication between journalists and the military (Iturregui et al, 2014), through the then innovative Warblogs (Meso, 2003), a new dynamic of transmitting information from the eld was created, transforming the blueprint of traditional war correspondence (Wall, 2011).Almost a decade later, the beginning of the Arab Spring also marked a before and after in international coverage, with social media playing a very important role (Gallardo & De la Quintana, 2012; Carlini, 2018; Martínez Canizales, 2020). ese tools were used by both parties; both by citizens and by journalists on the ground. erefore, on the one hand, the web and networks supposed a threat to the regimes due to the collective organisation of activists (Smidi & Shahin, 2017), so much so that in some cases, Egypt for example (El Hamdouni, 2013), States even cut o Internet connections. ese tools were considered vehicles of information (Amaral, 2017; Magallón & Campos, 2021), representing an important change in the sources and channels of Received: 19/10/2023 - Accepted: 19/03/2024 - Early access: 31/05/2024 - Published: 01/01/2025Recibido: 19/10/2023 - Aceptado: 19/03/2024 - En edición: 31/05/2024 - Publicado: 01/01/2025Abstract:e use of social media has inevitably inuenced the routines and working conditions of journalists covering conicts since its consolidation during the Arab Spring. e main objective of this study is to analyse the vision that the Spanish media have of the inuence of digital technology on their profession and to consider journalists’ perceptions of the risks such technology poses and its impact on both sta and freelance journalists. e analysis was carried out through in-depth interviews with both conict journalists and international managers of Spanish media outlets (n=23). e chief results include the high degree of visibility and accessibility, the constant demand for updates along with the consequent increase in workload, the deterioration of news output resulting from worsening working conditions, and the challenges related to the lack of digital security tools among the Spanish media. Finally, the need for self-promotion on networks, especially in the case of freelance journalists, in addition to having an impact on their job opportunities, is seen as part of media brand positioning strategy.Keywords: Conict journalism; social media; working conditions; security; digital technology.Resumen:El uso de las redes sociales ha inuido inevitablemente en las rutinas y condiciones laborales de los periodistas que cubren conictos desde su consolidación durante la Primavera Árabe. El objetivo principal de esta investigación es analizar la visión que los medios españoles tienen acerca de la inuencia de las tecnologías digitales en el ocio e indagar en las percepciones que los periodistas  muestran en cuanto a los riesgos que presentan y en su impacto tanto en periodistas de plantilla como freelance. El análisis se ha realizado mediante entrevistas en profundi-dad realizadas a tanto a periodistas de conicto como a responsables de internacional de medios de comunicación españoles (n=23). Entre los resultados destacan la alta visibilización y accesibilidad, la demanda constante de actualización junto con el consecuente aumento de traba-jo, el deterioro de la información fruto del empeoramiento de las con-diciones laborales y los retos relativos a las herramientas de seguridad digital que carecen de su presencia en los medios españoles. Finalmente, la necesidad de promocionarse en redes, especialmente en el caso de los periodistas freelance, además de repercutir en sus oportunidades labo-rales, se presenta como parte de una estrategia para posicionar la marca del medio.Palabras clave: Periodismo de conicto; redes sociales; condiciones laborales; seguridad; tecnologías digitales.
doxa.comunicación | nº 40, pp. 67-87 January-June of 2025Annette Unda Endemaño and Leire Iturregui MardarasISSN: 1696-019X / e-ISSN: 2386-3978| 69the media paradigm (Rodríguez & García, 2013), thus becoming an issue that “favoured an event that was unheard of until that time: a citizen anywhere in the world, armed only with a mobile phone, could tell a story with a photograph and 140 characters” (Sánchez, 2019, p. 61).On the other hand, the consolidation of social media has caused a qualitative shift in journalists’ work in the eld, “continuously changing the practice and performance of conict journalists and their coverage of war” (Harris & Williams, 2018, p. 75). is context directly translates into the increase in journalists’ need to acquire new skills, fostered by the demands of the media (Unda, Iturregui & Cantalapiedra, 2022). Nevertheless, the concept of the “multimedia journalist”, “multimedia correspondent” or journalist who works for several platforms in dierent formats, is hardly new: it is an issue that came up with coverage of the Iraq War (Iturregui, 2011). and became established over the following years, especially among freelancers (Bauluz, 2016).e consolidation of the multimedia prole of journalists who cover conicts has generated, among other transformations, a demand for various devices oering permanent connection with the media outlet and has reduced their capacity to create news (Harris & Williams, 2018). us, “the combination of technological advances and professional competence has led most of the main English-speaking media to exert increasing pressure on their correspondents in the eld” (Palmer, 2018, p. 13), demanding constant updates from them.Furthermore, those technological changes that have marked the development of each conict (Navarro, 2009) and professionals’ journalistic routines, together with the crisis in the media (Massey & Elmore, 2018), have triggered a considerable increase in the number of independent or freelance journalists on the ground, these becoming key gures in the news market (Marín & Valero, 2023). is has led to several studies analysing the conditions of, on one hand, freelance journalists, and on the other, journalists who are part of the sta of a media outlet. Ryan (2009) analyses the job satisfaction of sta and freelance journalists who work for American television networks through a survey conducted in 2007. Gollmitzer (2019) compares the working conditions of sta and freelance journalists and investigates “the emerging ways of organising and nancing journalists’ work.” Van Leuven, Vanhaelewyn & Raeymaeckers (2021) study cost-reduction strategies in newsrooms, among other issues, in terms of dierences between permanent sta and freelancers through surveys carried out with journalists (2013-2018). Istek’s analysis (2017), focusing specically on journalists covering conicts, is centred on the perception of media support for both types of conict photojournalists by carrying out in-depth interviews.In comparison with studies that focus on analysing and/or comparing the working conditions or perceptions of sta and freelance journalists, the presence of works that only analyse the working or professional conditions of the latter collective is of particular interest. ese include studies that employ surveys to analyse the job satisfaction of these professionals (Massey & Elmore, 2011), that look into the eects that the working conditions of these professionals have on the construction of news (Hayes & Silke, 2018), and on their identity as journalists (Josephi & O’Donell, 2022), and studies that analyse the eect of the greater numbers of freelance journalists in the media and its repercussions on professionals’ routines (D’Arcy, 2015). ese studies have been carried out through both surveys and in-depth interviews.For their part, Christensen & Khalil (2023) analyse the performance of journalists who covered conicts in Syria, Yemen, Libya, and Iraq with the emergence of new digital tools such as social media. ey place particular emphasis on the verication
70 | nº 40, pp. 67-87 | January-June of 2025Social media in conict coverage: journalists’ perceptions of the risks, opportunities, and impact on professional routinesISSN: 1696-019X / e-ISSN: 2386-3978doxa.comunicaciónprocesses that professionals had to carry out, through in-depth interviews of journalists who worked for various international media.Even so, although the inuence of digital technology on the profession of journalism has brought about numerous contributions (McNair, 2003; Micó, Masip & García Avilés, 2009; Weaver & Willnat, 2016; Salaverría, 2019 and 2022; Sánchez & Canhavilas, 2022), the same has not occurred in the eld of conict reporting. On the international scene, since Matheson & Allan (2009 and 2013) investigated the challenges and changes that the format of digital journalism entailed in the practice of war journalism, there have been few studies that analyse the role of digitalisation in war coverage (Bennett, 2013; Mortensen, 2014; Kaempf, 2013) where books that oer a more global vision of the situation predominate (Hoskins & O’loughlin, 2010; Carruthers, 2011; Harris & Williams, 2018).ere have also been few studies on the subject in Spain. e trajectory of the war correspondent’s profession has been inuenced by technology and the media crisis (Sánchez, 2019) and specically, by analysis of the coverage of the Arab Spring by digital media (Arias, 2012), the role that social media had in those events (Soengas, 2013; Elena & Tulloch, 2017; De Aguilera & Casero, 2018), or the fact of taking them as sources of information (De Ramón, 2014), are topics that have been considered. Among these, although there are some qualitative studies, a predominance of quantitative analysis can be observed. Finally, Lavín de las Heras (2015) used in-depth interviews in his doctoral thesis to analyse the inuence that digital technology has had on the job of the war correspondent (Lavín de las Heras & Rommer Pieretti, 2015) interviewing a total of 15 journalists.is paper aims, on the one hand, to outline the Spanish media’s vision of the inuence of digital technology on their profession and, at the same time, to look more deeply into the perceptions of the journalists who work for said media in terms of the risks presented and the impact the technology may have on both sta and freelance journalists. In-depth interviews have been carried out with those responsible for the international sections of the main Spanish media outlets and with journalists who work for those media outlets to glean a more complete and up-to-date view of the topic (Unda, Iturregui & Cantalapiedra, 2022). e specic objectives of the research are the following:1. Learn the perception that conict journalists and those responsible for international sections have of the impact of social media on professional routines.2. Identify the risks and opportunities that come with the consolidation of the use of social media in the coverage of conicts.3. Analyse the dierences in the impact of such platforms for both freelance and sta journalists.1.1. Digital technology and its impact on journalists’ professional practicesIn recent years, the profession of journalism has undergone considerable technological changes (Pavlik, 2000) as the Internet has become a key tool for reporting on political and social conicts (Del Valle, Román, 2011), as well as for transforming news paradigms (Lavín de las Heras & Römer Pieretti, 2015; Carvajal et. al., 2022).Many professions have had to change and adapt as a consequence of the arrival of digital technology, and journalism is no exception. e changes brought about by cybermedia and digitalisation (Cebrián, 2009; Salaverria et al, 2010, García-Orosa &
doxa.comunicación | nº 40, pp. 67-87 January-June of 2025Annette Unda Endemaño and Leire Iturregui MardarasISSN: 1696-019X / e-ISSN: 2386-3978| 71López -García, 2015) are mainly manifested in four broad areas: in digital technologies, logistical congurations, the proles of new professionals and informative language (Masip et al., 2010). It is deemed necessary to face new media challenges with bold formulas, with the aim of fullling their function in the new social, political, and economic context of online society (Zelizer, 2017; García Orosa, López-García & Vázquez-Herrero, 2020).is reality has made a mark on journalists’ training: “In recent decades, journalism has reached higher levels of professionalisation with increasingly complex communication processes, with more direct eects, with large organisational structures that change the concept of news, and with new and unpredictable technologies” (Sánchez, 2021). us, although journalists’ training has gone through dierent stages in line with each era´s technological development (Sánchez & Tejedor, 2022), journalists themselves proclaim the need to include “multimedia” skills in university curricula for the practice of the profession today, as well as to open job opportunities; the media are currently looking for professionals who know how to produce a complete news item, in order to minimise on personnel (Marín & González, 2021).It is not just a current phenomenon. Driven by the rise of technology and social media, the increase in journalists’ workload, especially freelancers covering conicts, has increased; just ten years ago, freelance journalists covering the Iraq War, apart from having agreements with dierent media, were feeding their own blogs (Iturregui, 2011; Moreno, 2010). All this, together with the constant pressure to send material to the media to get income from the coverage (García Prieto, 2022). In fact, new professionals entering journalism, especially freelancers, nd it hard to get paid for their work, and many end up working for free (Hayes & Silke, 2018).On the other hand, the media have historically been dependent on consumer-oriented electronic devices. Journalists, aiming to “meet trac quotas,” are tied to working a 24/7 timetable via smartphones, emails, and group chat programs, and face a constantly accelerating pace of work” (Cohen, 2019, p. 571). is routine, accelerated by a smaller number of sta and compounded by the requirement for constant digital news updates, leads to “the reality of not having a set deadline is that there is always a deadline” (Higgins-Dobney, 2021, p. 104).e coverage of conicts in particular sees the media demanding immediacy, and this, along with other factors, has inevitably inuenced the routines of professional practices, “a fact that ends up making the media pay little interest to analysis of possible ways out of or the root causes of a conict, and focus their attention, on the contrary, on those aspects that they consider more objective” (Requejo, 2018, pp. 1627-1628). erefore, there is a need to closely monitor the impact of these advances on professional routines and, in turn, on working conditions:e impact of these eorts on the work of newsrooms needs to be monitored. Rules governing work hours, time o, pay, and even editorial control can improve both day-to-day conditions and long-term outcomes for newsrooms and journalists (Higgins-Dobney, 2021, pp. 104 -105).However, digital technology has not only played an important role in changes to media structures and working conditions in journalism but has also altered the process of news gathering and production (De Vuyst, 2020). us, the interaction between the media and digital technology has created new dynamics in terms of news in the coverage of conicts. It has become an example of immediacy and has led to the need to speed up media verication processes of any news (Torres-Soriano, 2011), along with adjusting costs in newsrooms and, consequently, to an increase in journalists’ workloads:
72 | nº 40, pp. 67-87 | January-June of 2025Social media in conict coverage: journalists’ perceptions of the risks, opportunities, and impact on professional routinesISSN: 1696-019X / e-ISSN: 2386-3978doxa.comunicaciónIn the last two years, the laying o of workers and the downsizing of newsrooms has meant that the few remaining journalists have to deal with a greater number of tasks at the same time and it is an increasingly distant dream to carry out investigative journalism or even verify in depth the data provided by a source (Del Palacio et al., 2020, p. 4).is comes together with the trend for using social media as sources of information, such platforms becoming a niche for fake news and misinformation around the world (Jamil & Appiah-Adjei, 2020), an issue that is causing concern among journalists, including those who cover conicts (Schapals & Harb, 2021; Jamil, 2022).1.2. e consolidation of social media in conict coverage: the impact of the Arab SpringDue to the increase in atypical and casual employment in all economic sectors and the downturn in media prots around the world, the conditions in which journalists work are changing and generally getting worse (Gollmitzer, 2019). Digital technology has had a direct impact on working conditions; the number of contracted journalists has decreased signicantly (RSF et al., 2022; Tejedor, Cervi & Tusa, 2022) since the end of the 20th century (Gollmitzer, 2019). In the case of conict correspondents, “changes in professional attitudes and organisational needs have aected the practice of war reporting: testimony and the information requirements of the 24-hour information culture are two factors behind this transformation” (Harris & Williams, 2018, p. 18).In the context of the Arab Spring, specically in the Syrian conict of 2011; blogs, YouTube videos, and Twitter gained importance (Bennett, 2013). It was a revolution covered around the clock, which combined dierent news and broadcasting channels, such as traditional and social media (Hroub, 2015). e prominence or importance of traditional channels used by the media until that time was due to transmission problems, security issues, prohibitions imposed on journalists, and/or satellite incidents. But here, “the revolutions in the Middle East and North Africa exemplied the near-ubiquity of global access to digital devices, the Internet, and social media, enabling unprecedented speed and reach” (Pearce & Rodgers, 2020, p. 1). Subsequently, digital sources and channels have become increasingly important (Lavín de las Heras, 2015) in media such as the BBC (Bennett, 2013) in coverage of stories from conict zones.Furthermore, one of the possibilities that new digital tools have brought to conict situations was the growth of digital trust on the part of journalists and their sources, especially when direct personal contact was not an option (Christensen & Khalil, 2023). is, in turn, had other consequences:As newsrooms continue with their cost-cutting measures, journalists may come increasingly to rely on social media and online sources. Not having journalists who primarily write stories in situ or visit the places they report on, and relying on social media platforms, potentially alters both the reliability of the story and the public’s trust in the media (Christensen & Khalil, 2023).1.3. Freelance journalists and the power of social media for promotionWithin the context of the precariousness of the journalist’s profession, “freelancers have become the norm as cuts in travel budgets and the closure of foreign agencies have been carried out” (Matheson & Allan, 2009, p. 12; Díez Barriuso, 2017). e presence of freelance journalists in conicts has “stabilised” and grown over time, especially during and after the Arab Spring: “e conict in Syria has been referred to as a “freelance war” due to sta correspondents’ refusal to risk their lives and the
doxa.comunicación | nº 40, pp. 67-87 January-June of 2025Annette Unda Endemaño and Leire Iturregui MardarasISSN: 1696-019X / e-ISSN: 2386-3978| 73unwillingness of editors to assign their best reporters. Over half of the Western journalists killed in Syria were freelancers” (Harris & Williams, 2018, p. 58). e War in Ukraine (2022) has conrmed this data 10 years later; 48.7% of the Spanish journalists who have covered the war are self-employed (RSF, et al., 2022), an issue that reveals “the abandonment by the Spanish media of the coverage of wars, increasingly delegated to the gure of the freelancer” (García Prieto, 2022, p. 19).e incorporation of tools such as social media in daily practices encourages the creation of opportunities for one to become a centre of news and opinion, as well as to increase one’s market value (Brems et al., 2017) and obtain professional recognition from peers (Powers & Vera, 2018). Specically, according to López & Casero (2017), social media oers journalists three major modes for promotion: professional, audience-related, and institutional. Moreover, such channels are considered to be extremely useful digital tools for consolidating their online identity and gaining independence from the media outlet (Yánez et al., 2018). In the case of independent journalists, this trend can be exacerbated, since disconnecting from social media may lead to the loss of stories to other competitors. us, in this case, for freelance journalists, their product or merchandise is not only the nished work or content, but also the time they spend in the information industry as “eyes” and “ears” to get it (Hayes & Silke, 2018). Furthermore, “freelance journalists can take advantage of social media to become “entrepreneurs” with their own brand who can be or stay on the radar of potential clients, or generate their own audience” (Brems et al., 2016, p. 444). With the increasing use of social media, combining work and leisure is a growing trend. In fact, young journalists consider it essential to stay active on social media, in addition to it being part of their work (Hayes & Silke, 2018), to the point that “their virtual presence on social media platforms such as Facebook, Twitter or Instagram can oer unique information about their work habits, opinions and personal activities” (Brems, et al., 2017, p. 444). An example of this is that, in the American panorama, the dependence of journalism on commercial nancing, “encourages individual journalists to direct the use of social media towards audiences as a way to advance their careers or demonstrate their eort to address the economic problems facing the media” (Powers & Vera, 2018, p. 2728). us, whatever the journalist’s professional status, it has been demonstrated that having a prole on social media and building a personal brand is valuable for everyone: “Sta journalists can strengthen the sustainability of their media outlet and freelance journalists can build an audience for themselves and develop and foster relationships with potential media clients” (Brems et al., 2017, p. 456), an issue that should be addressed in future studies (Hanusch & Bruns, 2017).2. Methodis research presents the results obtained from a total of 23 in-depth interviews with both journalists who have covered conicts over the last decade (n=19), from the Arab Spring to today, as well as those responsible for international sections (n=4) in the general media outlets with the highest audience ratings in Spain (AIMC, 2023): El País, La Vanguardia, El Mundo and Spanish Public Radio & Television (RTVE).In-depth interviews have been chosen as the main technique for the study since they oer “a broad picture of a range of scenarios, situations or people” (Taylor & Bogdan,1997, p. 195) which allows for an analysis of the development of the profession from the subjects themselves. us, this study utilises a qualitative technique, the in-depth interview, to learn the
74 | nº 40, pp. 67-87 | January-June of 2025Social media in conict coverage: journalists’ perceptions of the risks, opportunities, and impact on professional routinesISSN: 1696-019X / e-ISSN: 2386-3978doxa.comunicaciónperceptions of a variety of media professionals. Furthermore, that is the technique employed by several studies in the same eld (Lavín de las Heras, 2015; Tejedor, Cervi & Tusa, 2022).e tables below show the proles of the journalists interviewed using assigned codes (P1-P19), as in the case of the international section managers interviewed (RI1-RI4). e objective of these tables is to preserve the anonymity of the subjects interviewed whilst facilitating attributions.Table 1. Journalists interviewedCodeMedia outletLink with the mediumConict zones covered in the last 10 yearsP1El PaísFreelanceMiddle East since 2009: Egypt (2011), Libya (2012), etc.P2El MundoStaArab uprisings of 2011-2012 (Syria, Libya, Yemen, etc.) and Ukraine War of 2022.P3El MundoFreelanceMiddle East: Jordan (2012) and Syrian War (2012)P4La VanguardiaFreelanceEspecially Middle Eastern countries: Syria (2012), Libya (2012) and recently in the 2022 Ukraine War.P5La VanguardiaStaMiddle East and North Africa mainly: Syria (2012) Lebanon, Libya, Tunisia, etc.P6El PaísStaMiddle East: Egypt (2011), Lebanon and Syria.P7El PaísFreelanceMiddle East and North Africa: Egypt (2011), Tunisia (2011-2022), etc.P8La VanguardiaStaMiddle East: Egypt (2011).P9RTVEStaMiddle East: Syria (2012 and 2020), Libya (2012), Egypt (2011), etc. and Ukrainian War 2022.P10RTVEStaMiddle East: Tunisia (2011), Libyan border (2012), Yemen (2012), etc.P11El PaísStaMiddle East: Yemen (2012), Bahrain and Syria (2012).P12El MundoStaMiddle East and Maghreb mainly since 2011.P13RTVEStaMiddle East Syria, Egypt, and Libya (2011-2012), Mali, Western Sahara (2012) and Ukraine War 2022.P14El PaísFreelanceMiddle East: Syria (2012).P15La VanguardiaFreelanceMiddle East: Libya (2012) and Ukraine War of 2022.
doxa.comunicación | nº 40, pp. 67-87 January-June of 2025Annette Unda Endemaño and Leire Iturregui MardarasISSN: 1696-019X / e-ISSN: 2386-3978| 75P16RTVEStaMiddle East mainly: Syria (2012), Libya (2012), Tunisia and Egypt (2011), etc.P17El MundoFreelanceMiddle East: Syria and Lebanon (2012)P18El PaísFreelanceMiddle East: Egypt (2011), South Sudan and Africa.P19RTVEStaMiddle East: Afghanistan, Libya, and Syria (2011-2012), etc.Source: created by the authorsTable 2. International section managers interviewedCodeMedia outletCareerRI1El País2 years as head of international deskRI2La Vanguardia8 years as head of international deskRI3El Mundo4 years as head of international deskRI4RTVE6 years as head of international deskSource: created by the authors3. Results3.1. Perceptions of journalists and media about the impact of digital technology on the profession: the two faces of immediacye majority of the journalists interviewed conrm that digital technology has brought benets to international journalism, and some emphasise that this has improved their professional conditions.“Digital technology provides greater and swifter access. You can do a live stream with your mobile phone if you can’t use a satellite, it’s clear that makes things easier. You can also send reports online” (P10, personal communication).“I had kit that weighed more than 10 kilos on my rst assignments, the satellite, etc. en satellite phones began to appear, but only Time magazine or the New York Times had them. e rest of us went with very heavy but really expensive equipment. Covering those stories was expensive” (P6, personal communication).
76 | nº 40, pp. 67-87 | January-June of 2025Social media in conict coverage: journalists’ perceptions of the risks, opportunities, and impact on professional routinesISSN: 1696-019X / e-ISSN: 2386-3978doxa.comunicaciónP5 says that technology has made transmissions easier, as previously information could only be transmitted by telephone: “ere were computers called “Tandy” that connected to the telephone. It was really precarious, because the signal was constantly cutting out when the signal wasn’t good” (P5, personal communication). erefore, according to P5, the only alternative was to dictate the report orally from a telephone booth.“Digital technology allows you to access a very broad spectrum of information/documentation, especially when it comes to background, since one of the most important things about conicts is that, knowing the background of what has led to the conict” (P2, personal communication).e Covid-19 pandemic, on the other hand, “proved that we can reach anyone through technology, even if they are not present,” says P12 (P12, personal communication). e phone was around before, but P12 says that seeing it “face to face” makes it more authentic, although he believes that this will have its consequences:“It is an advantage when covering events. However, the consequences of that may be that journalists travel to the scene less” (P12, personal communication).Both the use of these tools and their inuence on the profession have their positive and negative sides, according to P9. On the one hand, he considers that it is much easier to send reports from the eld, but, on the other hand, the “immediacy” that social media demand increases the journalist’s workload.e increase in workload and the need to constantly update information are aspects mentioned by almost all those interviewed about digital technology. P8 says that they have brought “pressure to keep on producing continuously.”“Now when you go abroad, they make you constantly send stories to feed the web, because the web needs material, instead of spending our time doing in-depth stories as we used to. As time becomes shorter with this immediacy, it means we go into the story in less depth. ey want a story now and then once posted, they ask you to enrich it” (P8, personal communication).“We can’t wait until seven in the evening to post something that happened at ten in the morning, we have to send it as soon as possible,” says P7. at is why P10 mentions that conict journalists today are “mortgaged” to the immediate situation.“To make a good report you have to go to the place, record, collect testimonies and get out of there quickly, because if there’s a war you have to leave as soon as possible, get wherever you are safe and send it. What’s happening now? If you are constantly going live on the phone, etc., you don’t have time to do that. I realize that many special correspondents are losing quality in their reports because they are so focused on the immediate and what is happening right now” (P10, personal communication).e increase in journalists’ workload is, therefore, a direct consequence of immediacy:“Newsrooms are insatiable nowadays, they want everything. Not just a daily report, which is a lot in a war zone. What’s more, they may ask for an audio, a live radio broadcast for the same media group and a video” (P5, personal communication).Several journalists coincide in comments about the need to produce for dierent platforms, which is why the concept of the “multimedia journalist” has been driven by current news needs:“Being a multimedia journalist is the result of circumstances. It is wonderful to be able to play every instrument, but you’ll only really know how to play one well. I do television, radio, press, in English, in Spanish, etc. I used to work with a cameraman or photographer because they covered his expenses, now I have to do everything myself. I can do it and I think I can do it with dignity,
doxa.comunicación | nº 40, pp. 67-87 January-June of 2025Annette Unda Endemaño and Leire Iturregui MardarasISSN: 1696-019X / e-ISSN: 2386-3978| 77but there’s no doubt that if I could have someone working with me, I could focus much more on the interview I am doing instead of paying attention to things like sound, etc.” (P1, personal communication).P1 suggests that this distracts your attention from what you are doing at that moment. Even so, P3 insists that the media demand this type of multimedia, highlighting the eort that this implies for independent journalists:“Now media outlets insist that you be a multimedia journalist. If you want to survive in the Middle East, you have to know how to make a video, which is why it’s so bad for me. at means investing a lot of money in good equipment” (P3, personal communication).e reality that journalists are facing at the moment calls for easy access to and dissemination of news, along with a demand for immediacy in news processes, a greater workload, and the need to adapt to dierent platforms and formats in the eld. at situation clearly aects both professional routines and working conditions. 3.2. Risks derived from the consolidation of social media in the coverage of conicts: greater workload, constant updating, and the danger of misinformationAll the international desk managers interviewed agree that social networks have facilitated the work of journalists in the eld:“ey have greatly speeded up the work and allow you to have material that was impossible before. When we travelled in the 90s, we had to pay for excess luggage on ights. Now you can do with a computer what used to need 80 kilos of kit” (RI4, personal communication).However, social media have brought to light various misinformation-related issues, such as immediacy, along with poor data verication, visibility of work, and for the Spanish media, personal safety.“Social media give the impression that you are nding out what is happening, but in reality, they are like ashes, the news is sometimes easy to manipulate. is has helped manipulation, because you can often see an image and notice that it’s old, it doesn’t t the story, etc.” (RI2, personal communication).In addition to misinformation, according to RI3, the speed of news that the networks ask for does not correspond with the eld work that conict journalists have historically carried out on the ground. But, during the Arab Spring, social media, especially Twitter and Facebook, consolidated their function as news channels among journalists and, in turn, among activists: “I remember going to Tunisia a little after the Arab Springs, I recall seeing a huge poster that said: Merci Facebook” (RI1, personal communication).is boom, according to RI1 and RI3, contributed to the visibility of the work that journalists were doing in the eld and in turn to that of the media outlet: “e fact of reporting through social media makes your item more visible and more widely spread” (RI3, personal communication). Furthermore, although social media had not reached the magnitude they have today, they were fundamental in organisation and in getting news out. “e regime did not know what to do then, it couldn’t close down social media” (RI4, personal communication).
78 | nº 40, pp. 67-87 | January-June of 2025Social media in conict coverage: journalists’ perceptions of the risks, opportunities, and impact on professional routinesISSN: 1696-019X / e-ISSN: 2386-3978doxa.comunicacióne dissemination of information through networks is a rmly established routine in the media landscape nowadays, so much so that RI1 and RI3 highlight its commercial eectiveness as well: “Today, a part of the subscriber trac of the distribution of our material comes through social media” (RI1, personal communication).erefore, apart from social media contributing to the dissemination of the work of journalists in zones of conict, they also bring up concerns about the risk of disinformation, such as the ease with which images can be manipulated. Even so, they are thought to be extremely useful tools not only as channels for dissemination, but also as a means for generating a greater number of hits on the media websites, or for attracting subscribers. 3.3. Freelance and sta journalists: the promotional dimension in news ows through social mediaSocial media played a very important role in the Arab Spring, known in the media as “e Facebook Revolutions” and “Twitter Uprisings” (Pontone, 2022), both in political mobilisation (Magallón & Campos, 2021) and in news coverage. More than ten years later, all the Spanish journalists agree that social media were very important in the revolts, especially Twitter (P17, personal communication). According to P14, at that time the majority of people already made frequent use of Facebook and YouTube.“e platforms gave activists a chance to record their own videos and upload them so that they’d have a reach that they wouldn’t otherwise have had. e media took this news from YouTube for free. If I’m getting it free, why am I going to pay you? at’s what has ended up ruining the profession” (P14, personal communication).P15 mentions that due to the speed with which information is received from the platforms, “exclusive” no longer means anything. When it comes to social media, the journalists interviewed have dierent opinions about them. One of the most important things about “spending time” on the platforms is that they do not create their own content for the media:“I retweet my own articles, but the truth is it takes time. e more time you spend on stu like that, the less time you have to do real journalism” (P2, personal communication).“If I’m writing a tweet and making sure people see that I was the rst to post it, I’m not engaged in the reporting that I’m supposed to be doing, I’m being immediate and I’ll be the rst up, but perhaps the news I’m oering is almost worthless. e function of journalism is to give keys, to try to show the key aspects of a complex reality, to simplify it so that someone who is not an expert can understand it better” (P10, personal communication).e constant need to update social media is another of the most frequently mentioned topics among the journalists. P16 says that there is a kind of “whirlwind” that makes you update Twitter and Instagram with a specic frequency, since, if there is not a constant presence on these platforms, it is as if one does not exist. In this sense, according to P16, women’s situation is even worse:“Women are even less visible in this profession, there has always been an air of “khaki-trousered macho”, it is the way that social media have of saying that we are here. ere’re more and more of us, but the problem is that we aren’t seen. I see Twitter and Instagram as tools to make our work visible, and us as well” (P16, personal communication).
doxa.comunicación | nº 40, pp. 67-87 January-June of 2025Annette Unda Endemaño and Leire Iturregui MardarasISSN: 1696-019X / e-ISSN: 2386-3978| 79On the other hand, P3 mentions that this issue has a “B side” in the case of self-employed or freelance journalists, aecting journalists who are in the eld, in the sense of a call for presence on the social media:“e more active you are on social media now, the more attention you get from people. It’s true that I sometimes feel that social media force you to talk when you have nothing to say. When a journalist is in the eld, there is a lot of preparation time, doing interviews, organising trips, etc. If you’re o the screen for a week or two on the social media, it seems like you no longer exist” (P3, personal communication).Along the same lines, P1 says that social media, particularly Twitter, oer the opportunity to create a personal brand, although this trend is not something new:“Tools like Twitter allow you to create your own personal brand. e historical gures of conict journalism also had their own personal brand, with one dierence: their personal brand was created through television, books, etc.” (P1, personal communication).“We all become a brand, and it seems like you’re a nobody if you don’t have a follower on Twitter,” says P8. In fact, he mentions that if his goal was to nd a job, it could be a cause for concern, since it is something that the media values increasingly. For this reason, he mentions that freelancers use Twitter more to make their work known.“If you don’t have a xed salary and no job security, you have to earn a living and promote yourself” (P6, personal communication). P7 holds the same opinion because as far as being a freelance journalist is concerned, the fact of being known can have a great impact on job searches:“If you are freelance, as they can then give you jobs, call you to give talks, sometimes university classes, sell books, etc. It depends on whether you’re high-prole or well-known. And how do you become well-known? Well, one of the ways is by being active on social media. So, for me, if you’re freelance and want to make a living, you have no other option. If you have a contract, then it is a matter of ego, because your salary isn’t based on that” (P7, personal communication).For example, P18 points out that in the middle of the Arab Spring he decided to start his own Facebook page:“ere was a time when I created an open page on Facebook, as a journalist, a “brand page”. I don’t know if it was a coincidence, but media like Radio France International, Deutsche Welle, etc. called me. I had a high prole. People responded, it was something that could build my brand, but it required a lot of work, a lot of time, it wasn’t my cup of tea and I ended up dropping it” (P18, personal communication).Although networks are a tool for self-promotion, P6, a sta journalist, says that this is “quite an unfortunate” issue because, in this situation, the journalist should be focused on doing his or her own work, something which has an impact on journalists’ working conditions.In conclusion, social media is a double-edged sword; they are free broadcasting channels which have had a direct impact on journalists’ working conditions in general, and particularly on conict reporters. Moreover, they can be seen as tools that require journalists’ “presence” on the network so that their work, and their proles, can be publicly recognised and valued. Freelance journalists face an even harsher reality, as their social media presence may determine the number of contracts and / or assignments they can try for.
80 | nº 40, pp. 67-87 | January-June of 2025Social media in conict coverage: journalists’ perceptions of the risks, opportunities, and impact on professional routinesISSN: 1696-019X / e-ISSN: 2386-3978doxa.comunicación4. Conclusions and discussione impact of digital technology on the profession of journalism, and specically on conict journalism, is unquestionable. Quite apart from being a facilitating element in work routines, social media have played, since their consolidation in the Arab Spring (Marta & Idiakez, 2014), a crucial role for journalists covering conicts. is study oers the rst diagnosis of the impact of this consolidation from the point of view of journalists and heads of international sections.e interviews carried out have conrmed that the consolidation of social media in professional practice has led to a notable increase in workload due to a demand for constant updating of news, both from the audience and from the media outlets themselves, since these types of platforms are seen by the media as “benecial”, as eective channels for keeping the audience informed (Martín et al., 2022).Faced with this reality, journalists mention the deterioration of news quality as a result of worsening working conditions, as well as limited opportunities to “look in depth”, which has had a direct impact on the quality of news available, and also supposes a risk for verication processes. Media outlets, for their part, admit the power of these tools in terms of making work visible, something positive for both the media and journalists themselves. In the case of the media, the benets are evident, since, as they themselves recognise, a “double eect” occurs; hits on social media favour an increase in trac of the outlet’s news output, which in turn leads to a better position in audience rankings and a better chance of gaining subscribers. e media are aware of both the opportunities and the risks that social media and digital technology can pose for their journalists and for the news they provide, but they are still far from oering personal tools to manage the security of their professionals, an issue that falls to the individual responsibility of every journalist who covers conicts. An issue that will doubtless call for further research in the future. Finally, in the case of freelance journalists, the impact of social media goes even further. ey acknowledge the need to promote themselves on the platforms, to be known and to have greater access to possible future employment. Sta journalists also accept the importance of having a complete prole, especially on Twitter (now X), but it is the freelancers whose activity and impact on the platforms may determine their professional futures. It could be said that the pressure that media outlets begin to exert on journalists, both freelance and sta, to develop and feed their personal accounts is part of a strategy to position the medium’s brand through the work posted by the journalist on their personal networks. at is to say, a journalist’s professional relationship with a media outlet is also conditioned by promotional criteria, which are part of the logic of corporate communication, and not so much of journalistic criteria. An issue that forces us to pay attention to new elements that may be inuencing the work of conict reporters. 5. Acknowledgementsis article has been translated into English by Brian O’Halloran to whom we are grateful for his work.is article has been produced with funding from the Spanish Ministerio de Ciencia y Universidades, under the project “Security conditions of Spanish journalists covering conicts: dening elements and analysis of their safety before, during
doxa.comunicación | nº 40, pp. 67-87 January-June of 2025Annette Unda Endemaño and Leire Iturregui MardarasISSN: 1696-019X / e-ISSN: 2386-3978| 81and after coverage” PID2021-122680NB -I00 JOSAFCON (2021). It has also received funding from the Research Group of the Basque University System (type A) Bitartez (IT1771-22) granted by the Vice-Counsellor of Universities and Research, Basque Government (2022-2025), as well as with the help of the Predoctoral Training Program of Non-PhD Research Sta of the Vice-Ministry of Universities and Research, Basque Government (2020-2024).6. Specic contributions of each authorName and SurnameConception and design of the workLeire Iturregui Mardaras and Annette Unda EndemañoMethodologyLeire Iturregui Mardaras and Annette Unda EndemañoData collection and analysisAnnette Unda EndemañoDiscussion and conclusionsLeire Iturregui Mardaras and Annette Unda EndemañoDrafting, formatting, version review and approvalLeire Iturregui Mardaras and Annette Unda Endemaño7. Conict of intereste authors declare that there is no conict of interest contained in this article. 8. Bibliographic referencesAllan, S., & Matheson, D. (2013). War reporting in a digital age. In Digital Sociology (pp. 151-168). Palgrave Macmillan, London.Amaral, I. (2017). “Primavera Árabe”: o mito das revoluções Twitter e Facebook. Anuário JANUS, Lisboa. Asociación para la Investigación de Medios de Comunicación. (2023). Marco general de los medios de España 2023. Bauluz de la Iglesia, A. (2016). La narrativa bélica multimedia, supervivencia del free lance. In Actas del i Congreso Internacional Comunicación y Pensamiento Comunicracia y Desarrollo Social, 192-214. Universidad de Sevilla. Bennett, D. (2013). Digital media and reporting conict: Blogging and the BBC’s coverage of war and terrorism. Routledge.Brems, C., Temmerman, M., Graham, T., & Broersma, M. (2017). Personal branding on Twitter: How employed and freelance journalists stage themselves on social media. Digital journalism, 5(4), 443-459. https://doi.org/10.1080/21670811.2016.1176534Carlini, A. (2018). Las redes sociales como factor de desestabilización. bie3: Boletín IEEE, (11), 216-230.

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