Micro-inuencers and advertising. Transparency and ethics in content
creation
Micro-inuencers y publicidad. Transparencia y ética en la creación de contenido
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nº 40, pp. 203-220
| 203
January-June of 2025
ISSN: 1696-019X / e-ISSN: 2386-3978
How to cite this article:
Fernández-Gómez, E. and Quintas-Froufe, N. (2025). Micro-inuencers and advertising. Transparency and ethics in content creation.
Doxa Comunicación
, 40, pp. 203-220.
https://doi.org/10.31921/doxacom.n40a2175
Erika Fernández-Gómez.
Ph.D. in Communication, in addition to a Bachelor’s Degree in Advertising from the
Universidad de Vigo. She is also the academic coordinator of the Advertising Degree on the Faculty of Business and
Communication at
UNIR
. Professor Fernández-Gómez also serves as lead researcher on the R+D+i project entitled,
ADKIDS MOBILE, which is funded by the Ministry of Science and Innovation of the Government of Spain. She has also
carried out two six-year research periods, accredited by CNEAI.
Universidad Internacional de la Rioja (UNIR), Spain
[email protected]
ORCID:
0000-0002-7088-1814
Natalia Quintas-Froufe.
Professor on the Faculty of Communication at Universidade da Coruña, before which she also
worked as a professor at the Universidad de Alicante. She holds a Bachelor’s Degree in Advertising and Public Relations
from the Universidad de Vigo, and a Ph.D. from the same university as well. Professor Quintas-Froufe’s current line of
research is audience participation in the new media ecosystem, in addition to the adaptation of advertising strategies to
this environment, which has led to her articles being published in several national and international journals.
Universidade da Coruña, Spain
[email protected]
ORCID:
0000-0001-7597-6516
is content is published under Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial License. International License CC BY-NC 4.0
Received: 13/12/2023 - Accepted: 14/06/2024 - Early access: 16/07/2024 - Published: 01/01/2025
Recibido: 13/12/2023 - Aceptado: 14/06/2024 - En edición: 16/07/2024 - Published: 01/01/2025
Abstract
:
Due to the emergence of the inuencer as a profession in which
commercial content is created to the benet of brands, and faced with
the controversy of not always disclosing this collaboration to the public,
the concern regarding the transparency and ethics of inuencer activity
has been addressed in this paper from the viewpoint of these prescribers.
Resumen:
Atendiendo al auge de la profesión de inuencer en la que se crean
contenidos comerciales para marcas y ante el debate sobre cuya co
-
laboración no es identicada ante los públicos, se abordan desde la
perspectiva de este colectivo sus inquietudes en cuanto a transpa
-
rencia y ética de su actividad. Para ello se ha preguntado a 290 mi
-
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1. Introduction
1.1. Inuencer marketing
As opposed to more traditional advertising techniques used by conventional media, many brands have started to include
inuencers as key players in their advertising strategy in the online environment, giving rise to
inuencer marketing
. is
activity can be broadly dened as digital marketing in which opinion leaders, commonly known as inuencers, identify
themselves with brands and become part of a company’s sales communication on social media platforms (Bakker, 2018). As
such, in order for this technique to work, inuencers must identify with a brand and be well-dened, and through their content
on social networks, they are able to inuence the opinion of their followers (Brito et al., 2021).
Initially, social media inuencers were considered those who had built a large network of followers, and who were trend
setters in one or more niches (De Veirman et al., 2017).
However, this concept has become more rened, and categories have now been developed that are usually related to the
number of followers they have, or to the social network with which they are involved, as outlined in the following section. It
bears mentioning that although the authors cited above classify inuencers in this way, it is not a closed ranking system, and
the numbers are exible.
Following digital prescribers on social networks is continuously growing, especially among younger proles.Currently, 51% of
social network users follow inuencers, with Instagram as the main network on which these followings take place (IAB Spain,
2023). Consequently, a lot of research on inuencers focuses on this social network (Romero-Cantero et al., 2022; Casaló, et
al., 2020; Sarmiento-Guede and Rodríguez-Terceño, 2020; Pérez-Curiel and Sanz-Marcos, 2019; Padilla-Castillo and Oliver-
González, 2018; Segarra and Hidalgo, 2018).
For this purpose, 290 micro-inuencers, who are those with less than
100,000 followers, were surveyed. eir selection was based on the
fact that despite not working exclusively in this profession, they have a
higher level of engagement than inuencer groups. According to these
prescribers, their followers know the brands they work with, and their
fans are aware that they are given these products as gifts free of charge.
As such, they accept the advertising content oered. However, the
inuencers do not always divulge this commercial partnership openly,
but rather clandestinely, such as by mentioning the brand rather than
using a clear advertising label, the latter of which is a practice that is
included in standard regulations. e inuencers also complain of
unethical practices by companies due to the lack of monetization of
their activity, as well as the lack of training in transparency.
Keywords:
Micro-inuencer; advertising; digital content; transparency; ethics.
cro-inuencers, inuencers de menos de 100.000 seguidores que sin
dedicarse profesionalmente a esta actividad, registran mayor nivel
de engagement. Según este prescriptor digital, los seguidores cono
-
cen las marcas con las que trabajan, son conscientes de que les ob
-
sequian con sus productos y aceptan los contenidos comerciales. Sin
embargo, para identicar las colaboraciones recurren en mayor me
-
dida a fórmulas más ambiguas como mencionar a la marca frente a
incorporar una etiqueta identicativa de publicidad, método reco
-
gido en las principales normativas. Denuncian asimismo prácticas
poco éticas por parte de la industria ante la falta de monetización
de su actividad, así como la ausencia de formación en materia de
transparencia.
Palabras clave:
Micro-inuencer
; publicidad; contenido digital; transparencia; ética.
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e involvement of inuencers in current advertising strategies has been widely studied in the academic eld from dierent
perspectives, which have addressed both the characteristics of their proles and their role as advertising content creators
regarding the following aspects: credibility (Silva and Mendes-Filho, 2023; Brito et al., 2021); advertising eectiveness
(Clemente-Ricolfe and Atienza-Sancho, 2019; Iniesta-Alemán, 2019); regulation and self-management (Ramos-Gutiérrez and
Fernández-Blanco, 2021; Sixto-García and Álvarez-Vázquez, 2020; Vilajoana-Alejandre, Rom-Rodríguez and Miotto, 2019);
and engagement (Ao et al., 2023; Oneto-González et al., 2019).
ere are more than 50 million content creators in the world, and more than 2 million of these have made it their livelihood
in Spain. Specically, there are more than 134,000 creators with more than 1,000 followers on some of their social network
accounts (ICmedia, 2021). Moreover, despite the fact that being an inuencer is now a full-time profession for some, consumers
often view them as relatively unqualied (Bratu, 2019; Cooley and Parks-Yancy, 2019), due to factors such as a lack of formal
education.
1.2. Ethical implications of inuencers as content creators
Inuencers are social media users who have built a sizeable network of followers by posting text and visual narratives of their
daily lives, and who have inuenced a group of viewers. As individuals, they become their own brands by presenting their
ideas, images, and expertise, in addition to sponsoring products as well (Taillon et al., 2020).
us, they have the ability to inuence the behaviour of people (Gómez-Nieto, 2018) by projecting their personality and
personal brand in their messages (Fernández-Gómez et al., 2018). Like inuencers, brands also have to be responsible for
the sponsorships and collaborations they undertake in order to avoid clandestine advertising and encourage best practice in
content creation (Feijoo and Fernández-Gómez, 2021; ICMedia, 2021).
As Núñez-Cansado et al. (2021) point out, the professional connections that occur in inuencer marketing usually take two
forms. e rst is when the advertiser oers the promoted product or service as a gift to the inuencer for including it in their
content. e second is a service in which money is paid to the content creator to use dierent advertising techniques such as
testimonials, events, sponsorships, etc.
As such, inuencers often submit paid posts as opinion pieces or use carefully crafted photographs to capture a product in
use. ese strategies allow them to convince their followers to purchase a certain product by using what appears to be organic
content. Moreover, in spite of regulations suggesting that sponsored content in the form of ad tags or collaborations should be
identied, many digital prescribers still do not comply with the guidelines (Taillon et al., 2020).
e IAB Spain Social Media Study (2023) shows that only 16% of users state that they enjoy advertising on social networks,
compared to 51% who say it bothers them a lot, or quite a lot. However, 20% of the users surveyed in this research enjoy
advertising tailored to their interests. e youngest (12-17 and 18-24 years of age), along with women, are the ones who spend
the most time following inuencers. A total of 34% of social network users believe that publications created by prescribers are
of an advertising nature.
Young audiences take a much more demanding approach toward digital advertising formats than other generations. is has
created a huge dilemma, as the audience itself is the group demanding specic formats, which has blurred the boundaries
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between advertising, entertainment, and information (Fernández-Gómez et al., 2021). eir way of creating content involves a
combination of entertainment and persuasion (branded content), whose sales purpose is not always obvious; social networks
tend to hybridize content by using formats and techniques that make it increasingly dicult to distinguish between advertising
and entertainment (Feijoo and Fernández-Gómez, 2021). e very same sector has demanded more eective regulations that
will allow users to distinguish between commercial content and the rest (IAB Spain, 2019).
According to a study by the Association of Communication Users [
la Asociación de Usuarios de Comunicación
] (
AUC
) and the
National Commission of Markets and Competition [
La Comisión Nacional de los Mercados y la Competencia
] (
CNMC
), 84.6%
of advertising and promotional videos published by inuencers are sales messages in disguise (UTECA, 2022).
Consequently, although in 2020 the Spanish Association of Advertisers [
La Asociación Española de Anunciantes
] (
AEA
), as
well as the Association for the Self-Regulation of Commercial Communications [
La Asociación para la Autorregulación de la
Comunicación Comercial
] (
Autocontrol
), published the Code of Conduct for the use of inuencers in advertising, the measure
does not go far enough, as it only aects the inuencers if they follow the rules of the Code. Furthermore, despite a proposal to
use tags to identify content as advertising, as in the case of
#ads
, such content is highly persuasive, which makes it dicult for
the most vulnerable audiences to discern whether it is advertising or not (Núñez-Cansado et al., 2021; Tur-Viñes et al., 2019).
In Spain, the regulation known as Law 13/2022, of July 7, General Law on Audio-visual Communication [
Ley 13/2022, de
7 de Julio, General de Comunicación Audiovisual
], encompasses only prominent inuencers in this audio-visual directive.
us, prescribers must comply with basic requirements regarding the general principles of audio-visual communication, the
protection of minors, consumer protection, and their registration in the State Public Registry of Audio-visual Communication
Service Providers [
Registro
Público
Estatal de Prestadores de Servicios de Comunicación Audiovisual
]. In addition, they must
comply with another regulation known as Law 34/1988, of November 11, 1988, General Advertising Law [
Ley 34/1988, de 11
de noviembre,
General de Publicidad
], as well as Law 34/2002, of July 11, 2002, on Information Society Services and Electronic
Commerce [
Servicios de la sociedad de la información y de comercio electrónico
]
Another study conducted by De Frutos-Torres and Pastor-Rodríguez (2020), and addressed later by Martín-García (2021),
aimed to determine the level of trust among university students toward inuencers and their content, among other issues,
Some of the most insightful results indicate that university students appreciate and accept sales messages, as long as they
coincide with their own interests, yet they reject inuencers who publish advertising content without any personal consistency,
or that they consider contrary to their own values. However, excessive advertising leads to mental fatigue and eventually the
abandonment of certain inuencers. In this regard, Sarmiento-Guede and Rodríguez-Terceño (2020) also assert that the
persuasive impact exerted by
micro-inuencers
is stronger when their personality coincides with that of their followers, which
is essential and decisive.
Inuencers are followed and watched by multitudes of people all over the world. ey amuse, entertain, give opinions, and
make comments, yet their followers know little about the inner workings of the business itself (e New York Times Editorial
Sta, 2020). is lack of transparency in content is aggravated when the audience is vulnerable, as they are less able to
dierentiate between persuasive content and that which is not (Núñez-Cansado et al., 2021).
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In short, there has been a need in recent years to regulate the activity of inuencers due to the lack of transparency in their
selling activity. Transparency implies clearly indicating when advertising and self-promotion techniques are used by digital
inuencers in their publications and, eventually, showing the presence of a contractual relationship between the brands
promoted and the prescribers.
1.3. e micro-inuencer
As mentioned above, inuencers can be placed in dierent categories according, for example, to the number of followers
they accumulate. Conde and Casais (2023) dierentiate between mega-inuencers (> 1,000,000 followers), macro-inuencers
(100,000 - 1,000,000 followers), and micro-inuencers (1,000 - 100,000 followers), each of which are associated with a set
of characteristics, advantages, and disadvantages. Mega-inuencers are famous worldwide. eir status is similar to that of
mainstream celebrities. As such, they are able to reach the masses, yet they charge higher fees and have less engagement.
Macro-inuencers have a large number of loyal followers, with more reach in specic markets, but their rates of engagement
are lower than the last category, which are the micros. Finally, micro-inuencers are ordinary people with a strong presence
in the community. ey have a loyal audience and higher levels of trust and engagement, but less reach and visibility, and it
is more dicult to measure their return on investment. However, this category is growing in the online environment (Gupta
and Mahajan, 2019).
us, a micro-inuencer has up to 100,000 followers. e originality and uniqueness of their posts are key factors in the
eectiveness of their content marketing (Silalahi, 2021). Another advantage is that they have a “genuine” two-way relationship
with the audience.
e fact that followers identify with micro-inuencers means that they take their advice (Rios-Marques, Casais and Camilleri,
2020). us, micro-inuencers lead smaller virtual communities, yet with higher levels of interaction and identication
(Sarmiento-Guede and Rodríguez-Terceño, 2020).
From an academic perspective, there is a lack of research into micro-inuencers, with the exception of studies that have
focused on specic sectors, such as tourism (Hernández-Méndez & Nisamar Baute-Díaz, 2024; Peres and Silva, 2021), the
fashion industry (Sinha and Fung, 2021; Shen, 2021; Gupta and Mahajan, 2019), the eld of health (Pérez-Ordóñez and Castro-
Martínez, 2023), and even local brands in Indonesia, which was addressed by Silalahi (2021). On the other hand, prescribers
with more than 100,000 followers have been considerably studied, an example of which is research conducted by Martínez-
Sanz et al. (2023), who examined pharmaceutical inuencers.
Peres and Silva (2021) have identied micro-inuencers as mostly women with postgraduate studies who have other jobs, and
who do not collaborate with inuencer agencies. is highlights the lack of professionalism in this activity, which makes it
important to study this group in Spain.
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2. Objectives and methodology
Until now, both academic and professional research has focussed on understanding the relationship between inuencers,
brands, and consumers from the viewpoint of audience reception. As explained in the theoretical framework, there are a large
number of studies that focus on the content analysis of social media posts, in order to see whether advertising content is clearly
displayed, as well as consumer interviews. Likewise, other studies have focussed on advertising agencies (Sanz-Marcos et al.,
2019), yet there is a lack of research on the inuencer as the subject of the advertising message.
e White Paper on Responsible Inuence [El
Libro Blanco de la Inuencia Responsible
] (
iCmedia
, 2021) surveyed industry
audiences by conducting 40 in-depth interviews. It provided a roadmap for improving this type of communication, yet the
main considerations were approached from the viewpoint of followers. For this reason, the authors decided to carry out a study
from the perspective of the issuer, which would focus on the phenomenon that has hardly been addressed in the academic
literature until now: the micro-inuencer.
erefore, the overall objective of the present study is to identify the ethical concerns regarding the activity of micro-inuencers,
and to reect on the specic need to regulate and encourage self-management of inuencer marketing activity in order to
ensure the protection of consumers and/or audiences.
To achieve the overall objective, the following specic objectives are set forth:
1. Discover whether or not consumers identify and accept the content created by micro-inuencers, based on the opinions
of the digital prescribers themselves.
2. Determine the role played by the advertising industry in promoting transparency in the content disseminated by micro-
inuencers, again based on the views of the digital prescribers.
3. Reveal the motivations of these content creators in working with a brand
4. Understand how micro-inuencers feel about the work they carry out in collaboration with brands.
In considering the exploratory nature of this study, the following research questions are posed:
1. From the micro-inuencer’s point of view, is there a negative reaction from the audience toward inserting advertising in
the content they produce?
2. From the viewpoint of micro-inuencers, are followers able to identify advertising in the posted content?
3. Do brands ask micro-inuencers not to indicate when content has an advertising purpose?
4. What motivates micro-inuencers to collaborate with a brand?
5. What is the opinion of micro-inuencers regarding their own activity as digital content creators for a brand?
e authors believe the use of a survey aimed at micro-inuencers will provide answers to the research questions regarding
their commitment to the audience in their role as content creators. A quantitative methodology was used, which was
computer-based and self-administered. According to Sierra-Bravo (2001: 305), the basic instrument of observation by survey
is the questionnaire, and in this case a simple questionnaire was chosen or, in other words, a list of standardised questions
that allowed the responses to be gathered and compared. Moreover, it is considered the most suitable method in this phase
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of research due to its capability of covering a wide range of issues in one single study, in addition to its appropriateness for
obtaining diverse information from a wide range of individuals.
A survey was sent to users of a Spanish platform, which joins together inuencers and brands, and which automates advertising
campaign management:
https://fuelyourbrands.com/.
A total of 290 micro-inuencers responded to the questionnaire between
December 2022 and February 2023. A 95% condence level and 6% margin of error was achieved. e survey received a positive
assessment of ethical appropriateness from the Research Ethics Committee of Universidad Internacional de la Rioja (UNIR).
In order to reveal the ethical implications of the inuencer activity carried out, the study measured the following four blocks:
1) Familiarity of the followers with the work of the inuencer. e following ve statements were made: ey know the work
I do because I explain the process used to create content; ey know I work with platforms or agencies because I show
this in my prole; ey know the brands I work with because I give them this information; ey know I receive gifts of
products or services from the brands for which I create content; ey accept and appreciate the advertising content. Next,
the participants were asked to rate their level of agreement with these statements using a Likert scale (strongly disagree;
disagree; neither agree nor disagree; agree; and completely agree).
2) Identifying content as advertising in the posts produced for the brand. As in the rst block of variables, ve statements were
made, after which the participants had to rate their level of agreement, also using a Likert scale. e ve statements were
are follows: I always add a hashtag indicating a collaboration or advertisement (example: #collaboration#advertising); I
always mention the brand in the post; (example: @brandname); If there is an indication that the post is an advertisement,
it is not well received by the audience in terms of interaction; e platforms or agencies I work with inform me of the need
to indicate when posts are based on partnerships with brands; e brands I work with remind me of the need to indicate
when posts are advertisements.
3) Motivation for collaborating with brands. e following were the response options: e product or service I receive; e
values of the brand; Brieng requirements; Re-launching the campaign for a client; Other (open-ended response).
4) Opinions regarding content creation for brands; open-ended question.
It bears recalling that due to its exploratory nature, the sample is comprised of micro-inuencers who wanted to respond
to the survey regarding their activity without any dierentiation according to gender, age, or sector, as the objectives of this
research are not related to the segmentation of these variables. However, the survey did include questions related to socio-
demographic aspects of gender, age, the main sector in which they carry out their activity, and the social network used most by
the prescribers, with the aim of discovering the socio-demographic characteristics of the micro-inuencer prole. e sample
consists of 81% women and 18% men, with the remaining 1% being binary. A total of 38% of the micro-inuencers surveyed are
aged 25-34; 36% are aged 35-44; 14% are 45-55; and 12% are aged 18-24. A clear majority of 85% of the participants are active on
Instagram and belong to sectors such as lifestyle (63.8%), beauty (48.6%), food (37.6%), and fashion (36.2%).
Finally, the questionnaire was designed based on benchmark micro-inuencer studies carried out by researchers such as
Peres and Silva (2021), Villegas-Simón et al., (2022), Kay et al., Parkinson (2020), and Britt et al. (2020), as well as research on
inuencer disclosure of content as advertising (Núñez-Cansado et al., 2021; Feijoo and Fernández-Gómez, 2021; Fernández-
Gómez et al., 2021).
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e survey’s design also relied on industry studies focussed on agencies conducted by Carpenter et al. (2018) in the United
States, and by Sanz-Marcos et al. (2019) and Smolak and López (2020) in Spain. Lastly, with regard to Spain, the authors have
also taken into account the White Paper on Responsible Inuence [
El Libro Blanco de la Inuencia Responsable
] (
IcMedia
,
2021), the Code of Conduct on the Use of Inuencers in Advertising [
El Código de Conducta sobre el uso de inuencers en
la publicidad
]
(
AEA
and
Autocontrol
, 2020), and the guidelines included in the following publications by the European
Advertising Standards Alliance for the EU: EASA Digital Marketing Communications Best Practice Recommendation (2015);
and the EASA Inuencer Marketing Best Practice Recommendation (2023).
3. Results
3.1. Identifying and accepting advertising content
As seen in Table 1, the inuencers analysed have the impression that their followers dierentiate and accept commercial
content. us, micro-inuencers believe that the following is true: eir followers know the brands they work with because
the prescribers report this information (86%); their online community understand that brands oer gifts to the inuencers in
the form of products (81%); Finally, their followers accept and appreciate advertising content (73%). Furthermore, 49% state
that their community know they work with platforms and agencies because the inuencers indicate this on their social media
proles. However, prescribers are not sure if their followers are familiar with the work they do as content creators, with 34%
neither agreeing nor disagreeing.
Table 1. Micro-inuencers’ level of agreement regarding their followers’ knowledge of their work
Strongly
disagree
Disagree
Neither agree
nor disagree
Agree
Completely agree
They know the work I do because I
explain the process I use to create
content.
10%22%34%25%9%
They know I work with platforms and
agencies because I show this on my
account.
8%17%26%35%14%
They know the brands I work with
because I give them this information.
3%2%9%49%37%
They know that brands give me free
products or services when I create
content for them.
1%2%16%50%31%
They accept and appreciate the
advertising content.
1%4%22%46%27%
Source: prepared by the authors
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In short, the prescribers suggest that they signpost content that has an advertising purpose so that their followers can recognise
the brands. ey also visibly indicate the fact that they work for an advertiser, and they believe their followers are aware of this and
accept it. However, it is unclear whether the followers understand how this content is created and the work that goes into it.
3.2. Transparency in publishing advertising content
As seen in Table 2, 65% of the micro-inuencers who took part in this study insert a label indicating
collaboration
or
advertisement
in the publications they post for a brand, so that their followers can see that this content is paid for by an advertiser. It also
bears mentioning that 20% did not respond to this statement with a clear answer, saying they neither agree nor disagree with
the assertion. Moreover, 15% of the content creators do not use this technique to identify commercial partnerships.
Another way that inuencers give visibility to the brands they work for is by mentioning them in the publication. us, 97%
of those surveyed said they always mention the brand using the label @brandname. In fact, this feature is used most often by
prescribers to indicate commercial content.
When asked whether they fail to achieve strong engagement when they indicate that content is for advertising purposes, 38%
agree with this assertion. However, 39% seem reluctant to conrm this statement, as they neither agree nor disagree, and 23%
disagree with the assumption.
Table 2. Micro-inuencers’ level of agreement on indicating commercial content in brand publications
Strongly
disagree
Disagree
Neither
agree nor
disagree
Agree
Completely
agree
I always add a hashtag indicating that the content is
either a collaboration or an advertisement (Example:
#collaboration#advertising).
6%9%20%24%41%
I always mention the brand in the publication (Example: @
brandname).
0%1%2%17%80%
If it is clearly shown that the post is an advertisement, it is
not well received by the target audience and there is less
interaction.
6%17%39%21%17%
The platforms or agencies I work with inform us of
the need to indicate that a publication is based on a
collaboration with brands.
3%5%25%39%28%
The brands I work with remind me of the need to indicate
which content is advertising.
6%15%24%30%25%
Source: prepared by the authors
Regarding whether the agencies or platforms they work for ask them to indicate advertising content, 67% of the micro-
inuencers say this is the case, and they are in favour of this commitment by the advertising industry. However, 25% do not
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have a clear opinion, neither agreeing nor disagreeing. Such transparency decreases in the case of advertisers, with 55% of
inuencers agreeing that brands remind them of the need to point out advertising publications, 15% disagreeing, and 24%
taking no position. is indicates that advertising agencies and platforms are more engaged than advertisers in terms of
transparency with followers.
3.3. Incentives for creating advertising content
To understand micro-inuencers’ relationship with brands and how this aects their transparency with followers, they were
asked about their main reasons for creating advertising content. As shown in Figure 1, 52% of the respondents highlighted the
free products or services they receive as an incentive for generating content for advertisers. It also bears mentioning that 22%
stated that the second motivation for producing commercial content is because they believe in the values of the brand.
When asked what other factors motivate them to collaborate with brands, they stated that when a company matches their
personal prole, they feel motivated to work with that brand, and they also mentioned that they choose products that oer real
benets to their followers.
As such, the commitment they make to their community is expressed through the type of collaborations they undertake, while
considering the values they communicate as well.
Graph 1. Motivations of micro-inuencers to collaborate with brands
Source: prepared by the authors
Motivation resulting from the requirements set by the client through the brieng, or the fact that the inuencers already know
the brand’s way of working and can easily re-launch a campaign, account for 10% of the participants. e brieng is a document
containing the initial information for carrying out an advertising campaign. In the open response, the inuencers specically
indicated the conditions of the campaign or the freedom oered by the brands as another motivating factor.
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3.4. Creating advertising content and the ethical implications therein
Despite the fact that micro-inuencers see themselves as people who are not professionally engaged in this activity full time,
when asked how they feel about their work of creating sales content, several participants referred to the need to make this
activity a real profession. Only three respondents indicated that they do it as a hobby.
us, on the one hand, the prescribers claim that the work of inuencers with less than 100,000 followers should start making
money from their activity, due to the fact that the creation of content involves work that is not suciently compensated by
the brand’s gifts alone. In other words, one of their demands is that they should be compensated with money. As advertising
platforms and agencies charge brands to nd prescribers to create sales content for these companies, the inuencers feel that
they should receive monetary compensation as well. On the other hand, they point out that the industry is not yet fully aware of
the power of micro-inuencers in connecting brands to consumers, due to the fact that their community of followers is much
smaller, yet they are much more loyal and take the advice of the inuencers.
For this reason, they are starting to reect on the altruistic work they carry out for brands without being paid, and instead receive
only a few gifts from the companies involved, while being obliged to work under the directives set forth by the advertisers.
Moreover, regarding transparency, some respondents say it is not benecial to indicate that inuencers have obtained these
products free of charge instead of buying them, as they believe that by displaying “paid collaboration” in the content, this
reduces their credibility.
ey also made it clear that the agencies themselves often request the removal of indications that the content is an
advertisement. Finally, other comments mentioned the lack of training regarding how to advertise responsibly, as well as a
shortage of information about content creators’ rights.
4. Discussion and Conclusions
is research addresses one of the least studied groups of inuencers from an academic and professional point of view, yet
this group displays higher levels of engagement with their followers, and even higher levels of eectiveness (Park et al., 2021).
Given the concern nowadays regarding the growing importance of this profession, in which advertising content is created for
brands, and that these commercial partnerships are often not indicted to the audience, we have addressed this issue from the
perspective of micro-inuencers and their unease regarding the transparency and ethics of their activity.
us, we rst asked the inuencers whether they believe the audience accepts and clearly recognises advertising in the
content created by the prescribers, and whether the audience is aware that the inuencers obtain free products in exchange
for promoting brands. All three values obtained high scores, with 86% of the inuencers believing that consumers are aware
of the existence of certain brands due to the reports made by prescribers; 81% believe that their followers know that brands
give the inuencers gifts in the form of products. To a lesser extent, though still considerable, is the fact that 73% believe their
followers accept and appreciate advertising content. Despite these strong indicators, with regard to the open question about
their work as creators of sales content, it is clear that some respondents do not agree with this practice. Some believe that if
they admit to a follower that the product is a gift that was not purchased and, for that reason, they have used labels such as
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“paid advertisement”, this will reduce their credibility. However, if they do not divulge this information, they will breach the
Code of Conduct on the Advertising Use of Inuencers.
Accepting certain advertising formats would require, on the one hand, a commitment from micro-inuencers to carry out
their advertising activity with transparency. On the other hand, it would require sucient advertising literacy on the part of
audiences, especially minors, who tend to take an active role in the advertising they consume (Fernández-Gómez et al., 2023).
Secondly, regarding the transparency of content disseminated by micro-inuencers, 95% claim they mention the brand in
their posts, yet only 65% include the tags “advertisement” or “collaboration”. is suggests that the rst practice is more related
to giving visibility to the brand than to being transparent with the audience. In fact, 39% do not know, or do not give an
answer, to the statement as to whether pointing out that certain content is advertising lowers their credibility. However, we
have already seen in the open question that some micro-inuencers say this is the case, and 38% agree with the statement that
if the publication is clearly signposted as an advertisement, it is not well received by the audience in terms of less interaction.
Finally, the respondents believe there is more ethical involvement from advertising platforms and agencies than from the
advertising brands themselves, as 67% stated that the former organisations ask them to indicate when a certain piece of
content is an advertisement, compared to 55% who say that the brands make this request.
It should be noted that the Code of Conduct on the use of inuencers in advertising recommends using clear generic indications
such as “advertising”, “advert”, “collaboration”, “in collaboration with”, or “sponsored by”. Or, as an alternative, descriptive
indications according to the specic collaboration in question, such as “Ambassador of [X brand]”, “anks to [X brand]”, “A
gift from [X brand]”, “Sponsored trip”, etc. However, this code is voluntary, especially in the case of micro-inuencers. us, the
code states that it links all members of the AEA and AUTOCONTROL, and any other company in the sector, such as advertisers,
agencies, representatives, and the media, as well as inuencers who voluntarily comply with the guidelines.
irdly, regarding the motivations of these content creators for working with a brand, 52% state that the free products or
services they receive is the reason why they create sales content for companies. is makes perfect sense, considering that
this type of inuencer does not receive money as a result of not working full time in the sector. Instead, their collaboration is
compensated with gifts of the brand’s goods or discounts on purchases. As such, it would be useful to look more closely at the
type of products or services they promote, and whether this might aect transparency. After all, the brieng provided by the
brand or re-launching a campaign was stated as an incentive for collaboration by only 10% of the participants, among all the
reasons for working with a brand.
Finally, the aim of this study is to understand how micro-inuencers feel about the work they carry out with brands. is
open-ended question resulted in several interesting comments, including the lack of monetary compensation for their activity,
as well as the need for the industry to act ethically and responsibly not only toward consumers, but also toward the micro-
inuencers themselves. ese responses coincide with a study conducted by Villegas Villegas-Simón et al. (2022), who also
conrmed that nearly half the publications created by the micro-inuencers analysed are not monetised, meaning that their
hard work is not compensated. Platforms and agencies act as a link between inuencers and brands. Content creators usually
do the work according to the instructions provided by advertisers, but in many cases, the time and eort they spend on these
publications is not compensated with goods or services. Furthermore, a lack of training in transparency has been observed,
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as well as a shortage of responsible content. is could be remedied though training courses, which is the case in nearby
countries such as France, who are pioneers in approving regulations governing the advertising activity of these individuals. In
fact, inuencers in France receive a certicate of Responsible Inuence after passing a training course. Although most of the
micro-inuencers in the sample are not associated with elds such as medicine or nance, it would be highly useful for certain
sectors to require a minimum level of training in order for prescribers to create responsible content for the public.
As usual, this study has certain limitations, one of which is the sample and methodology used. In spite of this, we believe
the research provides an initial insight into this phenomenon, and once again points out the need to continue promoting
transparency in commercial content in order to avoid advertising practices that do not guarantee consumer protection. is
is especially important due to the fact that anyone can become an inuencer, and this natural sincerity is exactly what brands
are looking for. is raises the need to supplement this research with in-depth interviews in which micro-inuencers can
elaborate on the statements of this survey and freely address their work as content creators for brands.
Regarding the sample, one aspect should be kept in mind. As this is an exploratory study in which the nature of this type of
inuencer is unknown, due to the prole having not been segmented by gender or age, the purpose of the survey is to collect as
many opinions as possible. Future research will be able to improve the representativeness of the selected sample. One nding
of this study, like that of Peres and Silva (2021), is that micro-inuencers are mostly women.
e authors believe it is necessary to ask the message senders themselves what the regulatory framework for inuencer
marketing activity should be, and how it can enforce responsible behaviour by agencies, brands, and inuencers in providing
truthful information and promoting transparency in their activity.
Such a framework should consider the need to identify the content as advertising, as well as to establish legal and ethical limits
upon which inuencer marketing should be founded.
It bears mentioning the recent approval of Royal Decree 444/2024, of 30 April, which regulates the requirements for being
categorised as a user of special relevance of video exchange services through a platform, in accordance with the development
of article 94 of Law 13/2022, of 7 July, General Law on Audio-visual Communication [
General de Comunicación Audiovisual
].
Although this legislation only applies to inuencers with an income of more than 300,000 euros per year, and an audience of
more than one million followers, at least it establishes a new, and necessary, legal framework to regulate their activity.
5. Acknowledgements
is article has been translated into English by Charles E. Arthur, to whom we are grateful for his meticulous work.
is work has been funded by the call for grants for the translation of scientic articles and publication fees in open access
journals, 2023/2024, of the Universidad Internacional de La Rioja (
UNIR
).
is research has been carried out under the auspices of the project entitled,
La profesionalizacion de la gura del [micro]
inuencer. Análisis de su desempeño en la industria publicitaria y retos para la sociedad en su rol de creador de contenidos
[e
professionalisation of the [micro] inuencer; an analysis of
their performance in the advertising industry and challenges for
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society in their role as content creators]. e project is a result of a collaboration between FuelYourBrands and the Universidad
Internacional de La Rioja (UNIR).
6. Specic contributions of each author
Name and surname
Conception and work designErika Fernández-Gómez
Methodology
Erika Fernández-Gómez
Data collection and analysisErika Fernández-Gómez and Natalia Quintas-Froufe
Discussion and conclusionsErika Fernández-Gómez and Natalia Quintas-Froufe
Drafting, layout, review and version approvalErika Fernández-Gómez and Natalia Quintas-Froufe
7. Conict of interest
e authors declare that there is no conict of interest contained in this article.
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