Journalism and disintermediation in professional routines in Cuba:
an analysis of virtual press rooms and the role of digital tools in the
relationship between institutions and journalists
Periodismo y desintermediación en las rutinas profesionales en Cuba: análisis de
las salas de prensa virtuales y del rol de las herramientas digitales en la relación
instituciones-periodistas
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nº 40, pp. 361-383
| 361
January-June of 2025
ISSN: 1696-019X / e-ISSN: 2386-3978
How to cite this article:
Taboada Castell, C.; Merchán Mota, I. y Cantalapiedra González, M. J. (2025). Journalism and disintermediation in professional routines in Cuba: an
analysis of virtual press rooms and the role of digital tools in the relationship between institutions and journalists.
Doxa Comunicación
, 40, pp. 361-383.
https://doi.org/10.31921/doxacom.n40a2681
Claudia Taboada Castell.
Predoctoral Researcher in the Department of Journalism, where she has received a scholarship
from the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU) and is a doctoral candidate in the Social Communication
programme. She holds a Bachelor’s Degree in Social Communication from the University of La Havana (2017) and a
Master’s in Communication and Culture from the University of Seville. Her research lines include the management
of corporate communication in digital environments, virtual press rooms, and the communicative ows between
organisations and the media. She has interned in the Communication and Information Oce of the United Nations
World Food Programme (WFP) in La Havana. She was the corporate communication ocer for the Caguayo Foundation
for Applied Arts in Cuba from 2017 to 2019.
University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Spain
[email protected]
ORCID:
0000-0002-3415-4943
Iker Merchán Mota.
PhD in Journalism with an international mention from the University of the Basque Country
(UPV/EHU), where he is currently a professor in the Department of Journalism within the Faculty of Social Sciences
and Communication. He has conducted predoctoral research at the Central European University of Budapest
and postdoctoral research at the University of Buenos Aires. He has been a speaker at the University of Cantabria,
the University of Carlos III of Madrid, the University of Duesto, and Mondragon University. In his professional career, he
was instrumental in establishing and developing one of the longest-running projects in Spanish internet journalism: the
consumer-oriented magazine
Eroski Consumer
.
University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Spain
[email protected]
ORCID:
0000-0001-9213-4759
is content is published under Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial License. International License CC BY-NC 4.0
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1. Introduction
Cuba’s late adoption of the Internet –implemented institutionally in the 2010s and made available to citizens there after–
provides a valuable natural experiment for understanding how new journalistic routines are developed and how relationships
between sources and journalists dier from established digital communication practices in other Western countries. e eects
Recibido: 24/05/2024 - Aceptado: 26/09/2024 - En edición: 06/11/2024 - Publicado: 01/01/2025
Resumen:
La digitalización en Cuba ha impactado la gestión de la comunicación
institucional y ha transformado los ujos de interacción en la relación
fuentes-periodistas. Nuevas herramientas como las salas de prensa vir
-
tuales proponen novedosas dinámicas de gestión informativa a la vez
que alteran las rutinas periodísticas en el sistema de medios. Este estudio
propone un análisis de la aplicabilidad digital al entorno institucional y
periodístico cubano, mediante una caracterización del rol de las salas de
prensa virtuales de 24 organismos de la administración central del Es
-
tado. Además, se complementa con 11 entrevistas semiestructuradas en
profundidad a periodistas con vinculación a medios para conocer cómo
se construyen sus agendas temáticas considerando la mediación tecnoló
-
gica y las relaciones de inuencia entre ambas partes. Entre los resultados
destaca que estas herramientas de comunicación institucional facilitan
el acceso a información para la elaboración de piezas periodísticas, pero
funcionan como obstaculizadoras en el acceso a fuentes vivas, entorpecen
también el acceso a las fuentes documentales y dicultan el intercambio
bidireccional entre periodistas y instituciones. Todo esto en un contexto de
desintermediación emergente, donde las corporaciones aspiran a emitir
noticias e informaciones directamente a la ciudadanía saltándose el ltro
de los medios ociales.
Palabras claves:
Salas de prensa virtuales; relación fuente-periodistas; comunicación
institucional; desintermediación; rutinas periodísticas.
Received: 24/05/2024 - Accepted: 26/09/2024 - Early access: 06/11/2024 - Published: 01/01/2025
Abstract:
Digitalisation in Cuba has impacted the management of institutional
communication and transformed interaction ows between media
and PR professionals. New tools, such as virtual press rooms,
introduce innovative dynamics for information management while
altering journalistic routines within the Cuban media system. is
study proposes an analysis of the digital applicability to the Cuban
institutional and journalistic context by characterising the role of
virtual press rooms across 24 central state administration bodies.
In addition, 11 in-depth semi-structured interviews are carried
out with journalists and academics linked to various media outlets
to learn how their thematic agendas are constructed, considering
technological mediation and the relations of inuence between both
parties. e results show that these corporate communication tools
facilitate access to information for journalistic production. However,
they also act as obstacles to accessing personal sources, hinder
access to documentary sources, and complicate two-way exchanges
between journalists and corporate sources. All of this occurs within
a context of emerging disintermediation, wherein corporations aim
to broadcast news and information directly to citizens, bypassing the
lters of ocial media.
Keywords:
Virtual press rooms; media relations; corporate communication;
disintermediation; journalistic routines.
María José Cantalapiedra González.
Senior Lecturer in the Department of Journalism at the Faculty of Social Sciences
and Communication at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). She holds a PhD in Information Sciences and
has been accredited as a professor. She has three six-year research evaluations and one in technology transfer. She is
the director of the Consolidated Research Group
Bitartez
and the principal investigator on twelve competitive research
projects. In addition, she has served as the director and primary supervisor for 15 doctoral theses. She is the driving force
behind the spin-o
Labak
and is also a member of the Scientic Committee of the Journal of the Spanish Association of
Communication Research (RAE-IC). She is co-author of
Libro de Estilo de EiTB
(e Style Guide of EiTB), which outlines
the ethical principles for Basque public radio and television. She currently co-directs the International Conference on
Research and Technology Transfer (Intracom).
University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Spain
[email protected]
ORCID:
0000-0002-3937-0119
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of digital transformation and the integration of information communication technologies (ICTs) within Cuba’s communicative
framework have catalysed a series of social and political transformations, prompting a need to update the regulatory, structural
and production frameworks of the Cuban media and communication system. National Legislative developments, such as the
approval of a new Policy for the Informatisation of Society at the VII Congress of the Communist Party, aim to provide a
strategic plan to ensure eective and participatory citizen engagement in the digital space. Additionally, the 2017 approval
of the Project for the Conceptualisation of the Cuban Economic and Social Model for Socialist Development until 2030 and
the drafting of a Social Communication Law Bill –discussed during the current legislative session of the General Assembly
of the Communist Party of Cuba in April 2023– oer a new regulatory framework for communication and the press in Cuba.
is evolving structural context underscores that information and communication are fundamental rights for Cuban citizens,
reecting the government’s commitment to advancing information and communication technologies that promote active
citizen participation in civil society (Communist Party of Cuba, 2017).
e Economic Ordering Task, implemented on 24 November 2020 through Decree Law 17, has promoted new forms of non-
state economic management (economic decentralisation), simultaneously reshaping the role of the State through reforms
in subsidies and income distribution. e emergence of local media initiatives –community radio, non-state press, and
specialised magazines– (Martínez González, 2017) now boast an active and widespread presence in cyberspace. Couple with
the consolidation of social media platforms as channels for citizen interactivity and as sources for the dissemination and
promotion of media content (De la Paz, Pérez Alonso, Gómez Masjuán, 2016) has facilitated a rupture from the traditional
communicative model towards an intermediary model (C2I). Consequently, this shift has led to a disintermediation in the
channels of access to information that were previously monopolised by the Cuban State.
At the same time, the mediations inherent in Cuba’s sociopolitical system and its informational and communicative
superstructure, characterised by the State’s comprehensive oversight of public, media and editorial policies, signicantly
impact the roles of the press and the media system. Cuba’s media information system “is distinguished by being a model
centred on propaganda and vertical information” (Muñiz and Castillo, 2023). Moreover, the inuence on media content and the
shaping of public agendas stem from the regulatory activities of the Communist Party, which serves as the highest ideological
authority (García Luis, 2013). ese particularities in media practice and their external regulation are crucial mediations for
any critical research on agenda-setting and production routines within Cuban media.
e ongoing struggle for symbolic power between traditional Cuban media and the narratives emerging from new channels
(Sosa Varcácel, Aguilera Moyano, De la Noval-Bautista, 2019) is transforming media processes and production routines.
Today, this shift has led to a noteworthy integration within newsrooms as part of a broader editorial restructuring process, as
well as the convergence of languages, platforms and modes of hypertextual and transmedia production in Cuban journalism
(Rodríguez Guerrero & Gómez Masjuán, 2018). Alongside this phenomenon, Cuban institutions have become active
participants in the digital sphere, employing institutional communication tools such as websites and virtual press rooms
(VPRs). ese tools enable institutions to establish channels for contact and feedback with strategic audiences, including the
public and the media.
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Virtual press rooms in Cuba’s institutional landscape enhance information production from institutional communication
cabinets through three key dimensions: 1- positioning online content about the institution’s activities, 2- producing content
and information aimed at being incorporated into the media agenda, 3- documenting/ archiving historical material for the
press (Taboada Castell, Merchán Mota, Cantalapiedra González, 2021). is dynamic can lead to information overload and
create new opportunities for citizens to access sources directly without journalistic mediation (Cantalapiedra González,
De Alzaga Fraguas, Iturregui Mardaras, 2017). At the same time, it enhances the inherent advantages of digital platforms,
enriching communication ows between journalists and their institutional sources while constructing their journalistic pieces.
While in the rest of the Western world, the use of the Internet has widely consolidated a more decentralised model of social
communication and information processes over the past two decades, Cuba is still in the early stages of adapting to network
technologies. All of the above, combined with the unique socio-economic, political, and ideological characteristics of Cuba –a
nation with a socialist model that permeates all aspects of civil life- where policies for eectively integrating the internet into
the media and communication system are beginning to transform certain practices, motivates the conception of this study-.
1.2. Source-Journalist Relationships and Virtual Press Rooms in the Context of Disintermediation
e “Press Agent” and “Public Information” models proposed by Grunig and Hunt (1984) have served for decades as a
reference framework for understanding how communication cabinets engage with, produce content for and interact with
journalists in Cuba. Following the establishment of the Cuban Institute of Radio and Television in 1976, the management of
not only the information disseminated to the public but also the synergies and relationship between media outlets and Cuban
institutions at all levels was governed by a media structure shaped by the Central Committee of the Communist Party of Cuba
(García Luis, 2014). Consequently, the selection and access to sources by journalists became regulated by this same authority,
which was tasked with outlining, directing, and regulating the information policy of ocial media (De Aguilera Moyano; De la
Noval Bautista, Sousa Varcácel, 2019).
Since the formulation of both models, the contextual framework in which journalists and communication professionals
operate has changed signicantly due to the proliferation and establishment of information communication technologies
(ICTs). Earlier models of media relations were based on the unidirectional inuence of Public Relations on journalistic activity
and the management of publicity (Bernays, 1936 en Cutlip & Center, 2000; Grunig & Hunt, 1984), assuming the media’s
defenselessness against corporate lobbying (Fernández Souto, Almansa Martínez, Castillo Esparcia, 2018). However, we are
currently observing an evolution in this theoretical framework. On the one hand, there is a notable process of bidirectional
co-creation of content between media outlets and corporations; on the other hand, there is a pronounced “disintermediation
of the press in the communication process with implications for public opinion” (Iturregui Mardaras, Gutiérrrez Cuesta,
Cantalapiedra González, 2020, p.10).
In the era of the Internet in Cuba, the adaptation and use of technologies have been, at best, slow and precarious processes
(Elizalde, 2013; García Luis, 2014; Saladrigas Medina, Oliveira Pérez, 2016; Muñiz Zúñiga & Castillo Salina, 2023) an
instrumentalist conception of the press has been perpetuated by political ocials, national institutions, and civil society.
Within journalistic organisations, the engagement with sources and the search for the necessary information –whether
through in-person or non-documentary means– has been characterised as “institutionalised and regulated” (Souto-López &
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Cáceres-Hernández, 2010: 105). Even in a scenario marked by digital convergence, a unidirectional and transmissive dynamic
predominates, with journalists occupying the role of the most active agents in their interactions with sources. Routine practices
continue to prioritise information notes, consistently hierarchising the same news values. Moreover, a culture of secrecy and
censorship of information by institutional sources is normalised (Molina Rodríguez, 2019).
Understanding strategic communication within Cuban institutions requires consideration of the conceptual divergences in
corporate, institutional, and organisational communication. While corporate communication involves research and planning
categories within a market-oriented framework, authors like Villafañe (2000) and Rodrich (2022) argue that institutional
communication moves beyond merely economic and commercial interests, clearly dierentiating it from commercial
communication. In Cuba, communication across diverse organisational spaces –public administration institutions and
state-owned enterprises to service institutions– has a dialogical and social dimension independent of economic interests.
Instead, it aims to strengthen the structure of the enterprise-state-citizenship relationship, grounded in the country’s political
and ideological pillars of organisational life (Saladrigas Medina; Oliveira Pérez, 2016). Consequently, when examining the
communication eorts of Cuban entities that signicantly interrelate in the public sphere, the term institutional communication
is preferred.
Digitalisation has provided institutions with sucient tools to communicate their messages directly to citizens, bypassing media
lters. Implementing websites and virtual press rooms frequently reects bureaucratic and propagandistic characteristics,
resulting in a lack of dialogue and ineective resource utilisation (Moreno, 2015). is dynamic further complicates
relationships between journalists and corporations “since reporters are left powerless when faced with institutional sources
that refuse to provide information” (Molina Rodríguez, 2019: 418) and instead rely on their own channels as dissemination
platforms.
is represents a trend towards disintermediation, characterised by the loss of the journalist’s capacity to inform while other
actors gain it (Albertos, 2001; Deuze, 2008; Macnamara, 2014; Segura, 2014; Cárcar, 2015; Iturregui Mardaras, Gutiérrez
Cuesta, Cantalapiedra González, 2020; Diez Gracia, Sánchez García, Martín Román, 2023; Moreno Mesa & Sánchez Decicco,
20203). In other words, we are observing a global publishing system that operates independently of traditional editors and
intermediaries, as the Internet “functions as a great disintermediator” (Albertos, 2001, p.24). Information circulates between
sources and users with increasingly minimal media intervention (Deuze, 2008). is shift is shaping a context for institutional
communication where media outlets no longer settle for merely aspiring to inuence but rather aim “to claim journalistic
methods as a guarantee of their work” (Iturregui Mardaras, Gutiérrez Cuesta, Cantalapiedra González, 2020: 10) and to take a
leading role in disseminating information by bypassing the lter of the media directly. is scenario ultimately reinforces the
well-known anti-public relations (PR) rhetoric prevalent among journalists (Macnamara, 2014) and underscores the love-hate
relationship that characterises their interactions (Harcup, 2009).
In this scenario, a growing number of journalists and editors are advocating for the extensive use of material from public
relations (PR) or institutional communication practices in today’s newsrooms, viewing these sources as informational
subsidies (Xifra, 2011). Media outlets tend to reproduce, often quite literally, the statements or speech acts of social actors
in the media (Méndez Nieto, Paniagua Rojano, León Gross, 2018). is highlights an increasing dependence on statements
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provided by sources. Meanwhile, communication cabinets ll their digital spaces with reports detailing their institutions’
actions and declarations. By focusing on the production of statements, institutions are exerting more signicant inuence on
the media agenda (Casero Ripollés, 2012), leading to a decline in in-depth analysis and independent investigative reporting.
Virtual press rooms have their roots in the traditional functions of institutional communication cabinets (Almansa-Martínez,
2005; Castillo Esparcia, 2006). Over the past decade, they have served as spaces hosted on institutional websites designed to
aggregate content aimed at the media (Pettigrew & Rebber, 2010). ey function as portals for the creation and dissemination
of information both internally and externally (Almansa Martínez, Castillo Esparcia, 2015). Moreover, these digital spaces
oer innovative solutions for managing communication between sources and journalists (García Orosa, 2013; Cantalapiedra
González, De Alzaga Fraguas, Iturregui Mardaras, 2017).
e evolution of the elements constituting current virtual press rooms (VPRs) is remarkable. ese spaces have transitioned
from traditional tools and resources used by communication cabinets, such as press releases, reports, and corporate
documentation (Wilcox, Cameron, and Xifra; 2013), to more sophisticated information technology tools within institutional
settings. VPRs now feature electronic agendas for press conferences, live streaming, subscriptions for journalists, etc. (García
Orosa, 2013; Durántez Stolle, 2017). Today, VPRs adopt a more interactive model tailored to their target audience: journalists
(Paniagua, Gómez, and Fernández, 2015), incorporating elements such as media monitoring, press reviews, social media,
and external links, among others.
rough these virtual press rooms, corporations can generate a continuous and updated ow of information to the media
“while simultaneously serving as a channel for information requests to the company and oering particular advantages for
some organisations with limited resources to invest in costly marketing tools” (González-Herrero & Ruiz de Valbuena, 2006:
268). While PR professionals and communication cabinets acknowledge that the primary purpose of using technologies in their
routines is to facilitate relationships with the media (Pettigrew and Rebber, 2010), there is growing concern among journalists
and academics regarding the limitations of these spaces in providing scientically rigorous and neutral information. Some have
even raised concerns about the de-professionalisation of sta managing these spaces, who often lack experience or adequate
training in media relations (Macnamara, 2014; Molina-Rodríguez, 2019). Additionally, there are notable shortcomings in
establishing bidirectional communication channels and fostering dialogue between journalists and sources (Taboada Castell,
Merchán Mota, Cantalapiedra González, 2021).
2. Objectives
is research analyses the emergence and consolidation of new Internet production routines in institutional communication
and Cuban journalism. It also aims to contextualise the current state of journalistic practice in Cuba concerning the
appropriation and application of technologies in daily routines. To achieve this, the following objectives are proposed:
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–
O1: Understand the applicability of digital tools in institutional communication in Cuba by assessing virtual press rooms on
the websites of selected institutions.
–
O2. Characterise the role of digital tools in the production routines of journalists working in state media in Cuba.
–
O3: Examine the role of these technologies in the relationships and interaction ows between journalists and Cuban
institutions.
3. Method
e research employs a methodological triangulation, combining quantitative and qualitative techniques. First, a diagnostic
study is proposed through a formal structural content analysis, focusing on the presence and characteristics of virtual press
rooms (VPR) within the Cuban institutional framework. is tool enables the mapping of the current state of digital applicability
in the communication cabinets of Cuban institutions.
is diagnostic study has been complemented by 11 semi-structured interviews with Cuban journalists with varying years of
experience and active involvement in the Caribbean country’s media landscape. is technique provides valuable insights
into the extent of technological convergence in Cuba’s major national and local newspapers. It also helps to understand the
role of virtual press rooms in journalists’ production routines during their processes of exchanging information with sources.
e analysis sheet used in this study is inspired by an analytical model systematised by the Bitartez Group of the Basque
University System, using Typology A within the framework of Project CSO2014-56196-R, designed for descriptive studies on
virtual press rooms. It has been validated within the framework of the same project and implemented in numerous studies
on virtual press rooms (Cantalapiedra González, Iturregui Mardaras, García González, 2012; Taboada Castell, Cantalapiedra
González, Merchán Mota, 2021; Unda Endemaño, Taboada Castell, Iturregui Mardaras, Cantalapiedra González, 2024).
e indicators for the data collection form are primarily derived from the methodological approach developed by the Bitartez
group during the course of the project. After conducting a preliminary diagnosis using Web 2.0 in institutional communication
relations and reviewing the existing literature, the research team drafted an initial proposal. is preliminary model was then
contrasted in a second phase with the work team members, who had professional experience in both media and corporate
communication cabinets. To achieve this, discussion groups were held in Madrid in March 2017 in a venue provided by the Rey
Juan Carlos University. ese discussions also included national-level journalists and communication managers from various
institutional and corporate communication oces. e coding team responsible for developing the content analysis form is
as follows:
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Table 1. Experts Coding Content Analysis Sheet (Anonymised)
Coders Research Team
Phase 1
Coders Research Team Phase 2
External Coders: Journalists and
Communication Managers
EI1. Professor at the University of the Basque
Country
ET1. Consultant and Freelance JournalistsP1. Journalist and Director CTXT
EI2. Professor at the University of the Basque
Country
ET2. Consultant and Freelance JournalistsP2. Journalist Grupo Zeta
EI3. Senior Lecturer in the Department of
Journalism UPV/EHU
ET3. Consultant and Freelance JournalistsP3. Journalist Voz Pópuli
EI4. Senior Lecturer in the Department of
Journalism UPV/EHU
ET4. Consultant and Project DesignerP4. Journalist Cadena Ser
EI5. Senior Lecturer in the Department of
Journalism UPV/EHU
ET5. Journalist
Agencia EFE
P5. Journalist and Director of Online
Publishers Association Europe
EI6. Senior Lecturer in the Department of
International Relations UPV/EHU
ET6. Doctor of Communication and Art
Director
P6. Director of the magazine QUO
EI7. Professor in the Department of
Journalism at the University of Seville
ET7. Adjunct Professor Audiovisual
Communication and Advertising Department
P7. Journalist in
El Condencial
ET8. Professor Department of Journalism
UPV/EHU
P8. Journalist in
El Mundo
ET9. Adjunct Professor Department of
Journalism UPV/EHU
P9. Journalist and Co-Director at Dragon
Press
ET10. Professor of the Department of
Journalism UPV/EHU
P10. Journalist in
ABC
ET11. Senior Lecturer in the Department of
Journalism UPV/EHU
P11. Head of Communication in BBVA
P12. Head of Communication in Ogilvy
Public Relations
P13. Head of communication ONCE
P14. Director of Communication Google
Spain and Portugal
P15. Head of communication Madrid City
Council
P16. Head of Communication Rivas
Vaciamadrid Council
P17. Head of Communication UNICEF
P18. Head of communication FELGTB
Source: created by the authors
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Furthermore, the research incorporates proposals for variables from previous studies on virtual press rooms to assess their
technical features and types of content (García Orosa, 2013; Parejo Cuéllar, 2015; Paricio et al., 2019) as well as factors related to
usability, contact options, and dissemination (Durántez Stolle, 2017; Herrero-Gutiérrez et al., 2017). As a result, the variables
within the analytical framework are organised into three fundamental categories: 1- formal characteristics and structure, 2-
information tools and resources, and 3- design and interaction possibilities.
Table 2. Content Analysis form/sheet. Categories and Indicators
Category Indicators
Characteristics and Structure of the Virtual Press Rooms
Type of Institution
Name of the Institution
Designation of the Virtual Press Room
Location on the Web
Interlocutor
Target Audience
Access
Information Tools and Resources
News
Press Release
Call
Statements
Agenda
Press Conference
Press Kit
Corporate Documentation
Design of the Press Room and Interaction Possibilities
Media List
Social Media Proles
Contact and Interlocution
Content Design
Source: Project CSO2014-56196-R MINECO, created by experts
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e sample comprises 22 State Central Administration Agencies (OACE) in Cuba and six higher State Management bodies.
ese agencies are responsible for overseeing “the direction and administration of one or more branches or sub-branches of
the economy, or political, economic, cultural, educational. scientic, social, security, or defence activities” (Constitution of the
Republic of Cuba, 2019). ey represent functional organisations that occupy the top hierarchical level within the direction of
the Council of State and Ministers, carrying signicant responsibility for disseminating public information. However, during
the diagnostic phase of the study, access to some of these agencies’ websites proved unfeasible as they were not operational
online. Ultimately, only 23 institutions were consulted for this research.
Table 2. List of Selected Institutions in the Sample
Entity Website
Home Oce
Not Available
Ministry of the Armed Forces
Not Available
Ministry of Foreign Aairs
http://www.minrex.gob.cu/es
Ministry of Foreign Trade and Foreign Investment
https://www.mincex.gob.cu
Ministry of Science, Technology and the Environment
https://www.citma.gob.cu/
Ministry of Higher Education
https://www.mes.gob.cu
Ministry of Finance and Prices
https://www.mfp.gob.cu
Ministry of Food Industry
https://www.minal.gob.cu/
Ministry of Agriculture
https://www.minag.gob.cu/
Ministry of Justice
https://www.minjus.gob.cu/es
Ministry of Education
https://www.mined.gob.cu
Ministry of Labour and Social Security
https://www.mtss.gob.cu/
Ministry of Construction
Not Available
Ministry of Culture
https://www.ministeriodecultura.gob.cu/es/
Ministry of Communications
https://www.mincom.gob.cu/es
Ministry of Transport
https://www.mitrans.gob.cu/es
Ministry of Tourism
https://www.mintur.gob.cu/
<p>[Enlace de URL / hc (has AS)]</p>
<p>[Enlace de URL / hc (has AS)]</p>
<p>[Enlace de URL / hc (has AS)]</p>
<p>[Enlace de URL / hc (has AS)]</p>
<p>[Enlace de URL / hc (has AS)]</p>
<p>[Enlace de URL / hc (has AS)]</p>
<p>[Enlace de URL / hc (has AS)]</p>
<p>[Enlace de URL / hc (has AS)]</p>
<p>[Enlace de URL / hc (has AS)]</p>
<p>[Enlace de URL / hc (has AS)]</p>
<p>[Enlace de URL / hc (has AS)]</p>
<p>[Enlace de URL / hc (has AS)]</p>
<p>[Enlace de URL / hc (has AS)]</p>
<p>[Enlace de URL / hc (has AS)]</p>
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Ministry of Domestic Trade
https://www.mincin.gob.cu/es
Ministry of Economy and Planning
https://www.mep.gob.cu/es
Ministry of Public Health
https://salud.msp.gob.cu/
Ministry of Industries
https://www.mindus.gob.cu/es
Ministry of Energy and Mines
Not Available
National Assembly of People’s Power
https://www.parlamentocubano.gob.cu/
Attorney General’s Oce
https://www.fgr.gob.cu/es/
Presidency of the Republic
https://www.presidencia.gob.cu/es/
Cuban State Council
Section within the website of the Presidency
General Controller of the Republic
https://www.contraloria.gob.cu/
Supreme Court
https://www.tsp.gob.cu/
Source: created by the authors
e diagnostic study was initially conducted in January 2023, during which the analysis sheet was completed for 70% of the
institutions included in the sample. is data was later updated between May and June 2023 following the research team’s stay
in the Faculty of Communication at the University of Havana.
e interviews were conducted using a phenomenological approach (Hernández Sampieri, Fernández Collado & Baptista
Lucio, 2006; Creswell, 2013), focusing on describing individuals’ subjective experiences concerning a shared phenomenon
and understanding the common categories that emerge from these experiences. e interview design was semistructured,
featuring open-ended questions that allowed the research team to intervene intentionally based on the topics that arose
during the discussions. e interview questions were developed around the following premises/postulates, derived from the
documentary-bibliographic analysis and the content sheet design:
–
e inuence of digital applications, such as virtual press rooms (VPRs), on the production routines of journalists.
–
e frequent use of VPRs and their resources/elements as documentary sources to prepare journalistic pieces.
–
e role of VPRs as facilitators or barriers in the search for information and the communication ow/exchange with members
of the communication cabinets.
–
e increasing independence of institutions from the media in disseminating information labelled as news.
<p>[Enlace de URL / hc (has AS)]</p>
<p>[Enlace de URL / hc (has AS)]</p>
<p>[Enlace de URL / hc (has AS)]</p>
<p>[Enlace de URL / hc (has AS)]</p>
<p>[Enlace de URL / hc (has AS)]</p>
<p>[Enlace de URL / hc (has AS)]</p>
<p>[Enlace de URL / hc (has AS)]</p>
<p>[Enlace de URL / hc (has AS)]</p>
<p>[Enlace de URL / hc (has AS)]</p>
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For the results analysis model concerning the interviews as a qualitative technique, discourse analysis has been applied
through a “thematic analysis” to the previously transcribed responses to identify themes based on response patterns. rough
this process, conclusions are drawn for each identied theme.
A non-probabilistic intentional sampling method was employed to select participants for the interview round. e primary
criterion for inclusion was that the interviewees must have active connections to media outlets in Cuba. Consequently, all
participants in the nal sample are journalists with professional ties to media organisations. Although the lack of a Census
of journalists in Cuba complicates the identication and contact with potential subjects, the collaboration of the Union of
Journalists of Cuba (UPEC) and the Faculty of Communication at the University of Havana was leveraged. During the research
team’s visit, this collaboration was facilitated through the course “Mobile Journalism”, which was conducted by the José Marti
International Institute of Journalism in La Havana from the 10th to the 14th of April 2023. is course provided an opportunity to
present the project and select members for the sample, following an indirect recruitment method. Participants provided prior
acceptance of the “Informed Consent”, in accordance with stipulations approved by the Ethics Committee of the University of
the Basque Country for research involving human subjects.
e course had an attendance of 30 journalism graduates and professionals from across the island, forming the study universe.
By applying the selection criterion of “active involvement in media outlets”, the study universe was narrowed down to 11
participants, as a signicant portion of the attendees consisted of post-graduate students. To calcuate the representativeness
of the sample and to determine which subjects should be interviewed to ensure the scientic rigour of the study, the following
formula was applied:
With a condence level of 95% and a margin of error of 7%, it was determined that a representative sample would consist of 11
participants.
Finally, these 11 participants with ties to the media voluntarily accepted and signed the Informed Consent and participated
in the round of interviews, which took place at a venue provided by the José Martí Institute of Journalism. e details of this
relationship are documented in the following table:
Table 3. List of Interviewed Journalists
Code Profession Gender
Professional Training
Professional Trajectory
P1
Documentalist for Television
WomanJournalism
5 years in the media
P2
Professor and Broadcaster
WomanJournalism
25 years in the media
P3
Editor in Specialised Magazine
Woman
Social Communication
9 years in the media
P4
Professor and Television Journalist
WomanJournalist
30 years in the media
P5
Professor and Television Journalist
Woman
Social Communication
20 years in the media
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P6
Professor and Communication Consultant
ManPhilosòphy
21 years in the media
P7
Journalist on Television
WomanJournalist
24 years in the media
P8
Journalist on Television
Man
Journalist
29 years in the media
P9
Journalist on Television
WomanJournalist
31 years in the media
P10
Journalist on Television
WomanJournalist
10 years in the media
P11
Journalist and President of the UPEC
ManJournalist
37 years in the media
Source: created by the authors
4. Results and discussion
After analysing the virtual press rooms of 23 Cuban State institutions (18 ministries that had an online presence at the time of
consultation and 5 institutions from the General Council of State) and subsequently interviewing 11 journalists and professor-
researchers actively involved in Cuban media, the following results were obtained regarding the applicability of these
institutional communication tools in the digital environment and their impact on the journalistic routines of national media.
4.1. “Doing Communicating” in a Technological Convergence Scenario: Journalistic Routines in Cuba
In light of the structural crisis faced by the media system in Cuba in 2018 –characterised by ageing sta, minimal or no
investment in innovation, challenges in editorial and economic management, and rigid top-down regulations (Rodríguez
Guerrero, Gómez Masjuán, 2018)– the current landscape, marked by increasing informatisation and a post-COVID shift
towards digital strategies, reects a transformation in how the Cuban press operates, stemming from hypermedia convergence:
Investment in technology in most of our media and the current connectivity options helps us save resources, resolves the crises of
shortages we have, and, of course, it even saves informative moments by allowing us to verify and deepen information in real-time”
(P10. Personal communication, 14 April 2023).
is need to transform information management models in the context of media convergence, a demand voiced by academics
for years –has gained traction with the recent commitment to digitalisation by the Cuban government. is initiative has
successfully driven digital convergence in the media (De Aguilera Moyano; De la Noval Bautista y Sousa Varcácel & 2019).
Our newsrooms today are extremely dynamic, not only in production processes but also in the mindset of Cuban journalists. Just
a few years ago, discussing the creation of on-site reports conducting live interviews for real-time news segments or journalistic
innovation, even when it was visible elsewhere in the world, was not common practice (P6, personal communication, 13 April 2023).
However, most interviewees contend that Cuba lacks a consolidated culture regarding using and accessing digital tools at
all levels. Technologies challenge and recongure “the roles of the subjects of communication, the producer or professional
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journalist and the audiences” (Segura, 2014, p. 117). Establishing a compelling economic and editorial management model
in Cuba is inconceivable without investing in innovation, research, and a systematic, standardised approach to technological
literacy nationwide. “We are halfway between conceptualising the process and then adapting it to digital platforms, and
thinking about communication products and those interaction processes from the logic of digitalisation itself, not just a mere
copy and paste” (P3, personal communication, 13 April 2023).
e implementation of the Policy for the Informatization of Society at the VII Congress of the Communist Party over the past
ve years, along with accelerated technological convergence, has signicantly transformed the institutional communication
routines of professionals. e interviews show that institutions are enhancing their online presence and allocating resources
to platforms such as social media, email communication, forms, press kits, etc. However, there remains an ongoing conict
within most Cuban institutions: the dispute over channels and spaces for information in both formats.
ere is a balance between publishing informational notes that serve as primary sources of information and, on the other hand, the
work in those press centres or physical press rooms, using traditional resources such as press conferences or briengs (P6, personal
communication, 13 April 2023).
e analysis sheet on virtual press rooms within the studied institutions and their formal characteristics yields complementary
results in this section. Eight-seven per cent of these institutions feature a dedicated section on their websites for public
relations materials. At the same time, nearly one-fth do not allocate space for centralising content aimed at journalists. e
accessibility of the content further enhances these presence indicators. In all cases analysed the spaces are freely accessible
and unrestricted for both journalists and the general public. Notably, in 61% of the cases studied, the journalists’ section is
easily accessible from the main menu. ese ndings align with the premise that there is indeed an emerging technological
landscape in Cuba, serving as a transversal component in social communication processes. Prior to 2017, it was evident that
Cuba lacked suciently modern infrastructure and a culture conducive to understanding and applying technologies within
corporate dynamics in the Caribbean country (Martínez González, 2017). As one respondent notes, “e sta from our
institutions, ministries, directing bodies has realised that in Cuba today, you cannot think of any communication process
without taking into account the digital environment, and their online presence, with the few resources allocated to it, is viewed
positively” (P10, personal communication, April 14).
Cuban institutions’ digital presence facilitates access to information and supports journalistic management. However,
interviewees emphasise the precariousness of the information provided through virtual press rooms. ey point out that
institutional representatives often use these platforms to establish distance from direct contact with live sources, thereby
hindering the potential for more investigative journalism.
4.2. Media and Source Relations in Cuba: A One-Way Street or Reciprocal Exchange?
Two aspects have characterised the traditional dynamic of source-journalist relationships. First, it involves a relationship
aimed at exerting inuence (Grunig & Hunt, 1984). Second, it encompasses a dynamic based on personal relationships that
serve social purposes between both parties (Souto López and Hernández Cáceres, 2010). Virtual press rooms and websites
represent a signicant qualitative step in that relationship, facilitating the provision of informational and management
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solutions within the traditional source-journalist relationship (García Orosa, 2013). However, the process of digitalisation in
Cuba is not without its challenges. “e conception in other countries compared to the conception in Cuba regarding websites
and virtual press rooms is a more transmedia view of communication. is means that digital platforms in Cuba are considered
information storage facilities” (P5 personal communication, April 13 2023).
e interviewees recognise a growing documentary perspective regarding these digital tools, such as virtual press rooms and
web portals. “On one hand, there is a work of verication and material research in these virtual press rooms or web portals
because they provide information that later shapes the journalistic piece” (P2, personal communication, 13 April 2023).
However, they also highlight several constraints related to the design and usability of these platforms that hinder the ow of
information exchange and the development of lasting relationships: information presented is often outdated, the criteria for
its selection and treatment lack professionalism, and these platforms exacerbate a culture of bureaucracy and the mechanisms
of permissibility needed to generate an encounter with live sources. “ese websites are outdated, user pathways are very
dicult, and achieving transparency without censorship in the information they post is very challenging; thus, everything
remains very protocol-driven” (P1, personal communication, April 13, 2023).
e results from the content analysis sheet corroborate the previous premise. Corporate documentation (91%), often without
download options, and the news archive (95%) are the most prevalent resources. In contrast, more interactive resources that
extend beyond purely documentary purposes –such as social media presence (82%), electronic agendas (21%) or contact
forms/chat (47%– are signicantly less represented. is suggests that an instrumental approach prevails, positioning these
platforms more as showcases of content rather than as tools that facilitate the exchange process. “ese news tabs are still
storage places for what the institution considers newsworthy, but the information becomes outdated very quickly, or they often
replicate information that the media has already published about the institution or sector” (P8, personal communication, 14
April 2023).
It is crucial to cultivate and nurture the relationship between journalists and sources as new technologies evolve rather than
allow it to be hindered (Iturregui Mardaras, Cantalapiedra González, Hernández Cuesta, 2020). Journalists recognise the value
of these platforms for extracting, analysing, and verifying information. However, they insist that websites and institutional
portals sometimes act as barriers to communication ows. “Rather than being facilitators, they are obstacles because they do
not allow contact with the source or hinder it” (P8, personal communication, 14 April 2023).
4.2.1. Deprofessionalisation of Communication and the Press in Cuba: Training and Execution Thought Out from A
Digital Logic?
In Cuba, there exists both political and academic will to train multimedia communicators and journalists, but “in Cuban
institutions, there is a lack of professionalism: special attention is needed for human resources, because the communication
cabinets of an institution can not consist of just one person, often with a prole that is not even communication-related” (P2,
personal communication, 13 April 2023). Researchers and professors from the Faculty of Communication emphasised that
while academia strives to train journalists and communicators, Cuban institutions must better understand their narrative
and social functions to communicate eectively through their websites. “Building that narrative requires audiovisual and
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multimedia, from a discussion forum to a download site. But for that, a team with the right skills is needed” (P3, personal
communication, 13 April 2023). A journalist from the Cuban television information system complained about the lack of
communication professionals in the Virtual Press Rooms:
With the issue of the policy of informatisation of society, each State administration body or enterprise in the economic sector has
developed its communication apparatus, website, and press room. I have yet to come across one of these apparatuses, which is truly
made up of communication specialists. (P9, personal communication, 14 April 2023).
Placing communication at the centre of governance necessitates a focused emphasis on enterprise and human capital (Álvarez
Chacón and Rodríguez Cruz, 2023) and investing in resources, innovation, and training for personnel who should have an
academic background in institutional information management. e interviewees recognised and expressed concern over the
poor state of communication management in many contemporary communication cabinets despite the range of technologies
available to them. “In many institutions, they have discarded the gure of the journalist or the communicator because they feel
that anyone can create a press release” (P1, personal communication, 13 April 2023).
e ndings from the analysis sheet support this assertion. e category “interlocutor” refers to a designated person for
institutional communication and appears in only one-fth of the analysed cases. Furthermore, among those institutions
that do not identify an interlocutor, 82% designate the institutional responsible party as a webmaster or “IT specialist”. is
analysis indicates that the personnel within the communication cabinets of the analysed institutions do not typically have
backgrounds in information and communication sciences. Moreover, whether they possess the necessary data-handling
skills or informational content selection and production remains unclear. is observation aligns with the comments from
interviewees, who noted that many managers and institutional leaders “lack the training or discernment to know which
information to prioritise, because they lack newsworthiness criteria and do not have the competencies to know how to engage
with journalists” (P7, personal communication, 14 April 2023). Such shortcomings hinder the ow of interaction between
sources and journalists, disrupting the encounters between both parties (García Luis, 2014).
4.3. A Balance of Forces: “Institutions that Make News” and “Is there a disintermediation of Cuban Media?”
Many voices within the academic and research communities in social sciences in Cuba are expressing concerns about the
ongoing de-professionalisation of Cuban journalism, a trend exacerbated by the complex relationships between sources and
journalists in the country (Molina Rodríguez, 2019). “e culture of bureaucracy that persists and the intricate mechanisms
of permissibility makes it increasingly dicult for journalists to conduct investigative work or critical reports” (P2 personal
communication, 13 April 2023). At the same time, there is a general perception that Cuban institutions, through their Public
Relations practices and institutional communication tools, are increasingly viewing themselves as less dependent on the media.
“e functions of media journalists are increasingly overlapping with those of communicators or workers in communication
cabinets” (P5, personal communication, 13 April 2023).
Regarding this nding, the analysis of data collected in the analysis sheet shows that among the total resources and materials
for PR intended for journalists, the analysed virtual press rooms predominantly utilise the “news” genre (21%), which is
exclusive to journalism, as a form of institutional material. is gure surpasses that of “press releases” (17%), statements
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(13%), or even “press kits” (10%). is trend indicates a practice in institutional communication, already noted by other voices
in the international scientic community (Iturregui Mardaras, Cantalapiedra González, Hernández Cuesta, 2020) of resorting
to an informational genre exclusive to journalistic practice to generate information about the institution. is sentiment was
echoed during the interviews:
Now, digital sites, these web portals, believe they own the information; some sites are starting to act like the original source owners
and are the rst to proclaim to the public that they have exclusive information. (P2, personal communication, 13 April 2023).
e value of digital platforms in Cuba for articulating new institutional narratives with citizens and journalists is widely
recognised thus far. However, the interviewees assert that this overabundance of sources (Serrano Puche, 2013) and current
information’s capillarity lead to an emerging disintermediation. Despite this, they emphasise the importance of journalistic
vocation and practice, which other actors cannot replace:
It may be the case that the web portals of Cuban institutions want to pursue the goal of exclusivity, releasing information before the
media, not needing journalists to position content and monopolising information. Nonetheless, they need the journalists’ skills to
organise the information” (P2, personal communication, 13 April 2023).
Reections have also emerged concerning the social legitimacy of institutional sources compared to the broader legitimacy
of national press outlets, which defend “true journalism, in-depth journalism, investigative journalism” (P8, personal
communication, 14 April 2023). “Although the media often simply reproduces the same press release that the institution
published, the public is less likely to question that media outlet, and the institution is still not regarded as a credible source of
information (P3, personal communication, 13 April 2023).
Even among the more optimistic voices that support the social legitimacy of ocial Cuban media, concerns are emerging about
the ever-increasing ability of Cuban institutions to issue and disseminate information without the mediation of journalists. “In
Cuba, I believe that this kind of disintermediation is not as consolidated as it is in countries with other content production and
consumption models, but I do see it advancing in leaps and bounds.” (P4, personal communication, 13 April 2023).
5. Conclusions
Digitalisation in Cuba is driving a shift in public communication and information processes, comparable to the emergence
and consolidation of digital technologies in the Western World over two decades ago. e research ndings also reveal
theoretical implications that contribute to advancing the scientic literature and conceptual frameworks established in
previous contributions.
Firstly, despite limited resources and access to better technological infrastructures, digital applications, such as virtual press
rooms (VPR), have indeed transformed the production routines of journalists in Cuba. is suggests that even within a media
environment constrained by the particularities of its press model (Muñiz Zúñiga and Castillo Salina, 2023), technologies
have managed to redene the relationships between sources and journalists, introducing new conditions in that relationship
(Masip, 2005; Aguirre Gamboa, Anaya Ávila, Laurencio Meza, 2023).
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Despite their transformative potential and in line with the aim of addressing the role of these technologies, limiting factors
persist. e results from the analysis sheet reveal that Virtual Press Rooms (VPRs) function as content repositories, oering
limited opportunities for interactivity and reciprocity between journalists and sources, which complicates the ow of
contact between both parties. Similarly, the analysed statistics show that VPRs overwhelm the communicative space with
an institutional narrative conveyed through press releases, statements, declarations and information labelled as news. As
institutional sources, they capitalise on their content production capabilities and informational agendas to position themselves
as agenda-setters (Diez Gracia, Sánchez García, Martín Román, 2023).
Several contrasting key ideas have emerged thus far. On the one hand, the inuence of these technologies on the production
routines of Cuban media indicates that hypermedia convergence in institutional communication facilitates centralised access
to information and documentation that journalists need to craft their journalistic pieces. However, at the same time, these
technologies serve as obstacles to accessing live sources. ey complicate user pathways and hinder journalists’ ability to
contact institutional representatives.
On the other hand, journalists are losing their exclusivity in the dissemination of information. e nature of the publications
appearing in virtual press rooms (VPRs), most often labelled as “news”, reects a desire on the part of institutions to be recognised
as media outlets (Aruguete, 2017) while highlighting topics that serve their private interests, sidelining broader public concerns
(Albertos, 2001). In the context of digitalisation, the ability of institutions to publish their own content through online portals
puts the role of journalists as mediators of information intended for the public in jeopardy. e study’s ndings demonstrate
that this disintermediating role also aects the nal product that reaches audiences, inuencing the establishment of thematic
agendas and determining what is considered relevant or newsworthy for inclusion in the informational product (Albertos,
2001). us, one of the central debates emerging from the study’s ndings, which contributes to advancing the theoretical
foundations of agenda-setting theory (McCombs y Shaw, 1972) and its evolution within the context of digitalisation (Ardévol
Abreu, Gil de Zúñiga, McCombs, 2020) is that institutions or companies not only inuence editorial decisions but also ll the
communicative space with information that serves private interests. is dynamic signicantly impacts the establishment of
topics of interest for citizens.
e interviewees also emphasised the persistent lack of competencies and capacities within institutions to develop a
journalistic method, highlighting their inability to replace journalists eectively. e eort to make institutional thematic
agendas transparent on these online portals remains inconsistent and fragmented, undermining the credibility of the
institutional narrative among citizens and positioning it in favour of ocial media.
Finally, future research could explore the perspectives of leaders and communication cabinet ocials in Cuba regarding their
relationship and exchange with journalists, mainly as mediated by the technological capabilities now at their disposal and the
new contingencies emerging within the institutional landscape, such as the trend towards de-professionalisation in the roles
and proles of their members. Additionally, given its status as a natural experiment, the ndings from this study provide a
valuable comparative framework for understanding the evolution of digitalisation to disintermediation in Western countries
where internet access has been available for over two decades.
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6. Acknowledgements
is article has been translated into English by Sophie Phillips, to whom we are grateful for her work.
We also extend our thanks to all the Journalism Department professors at the Faculty of Communication at the University of
Havana who made this transatlantic collaboration possible and to the Cuban journalists who participated in the eldwork.
is research is funded by the Research Group of the Basque University System (Type A) Bitartez (IT1771-22) granted by
the Vice Ministry of Universities and Research, Basque Government (2022-2025). Additionally, it receives support from the
Predoctoral Training Programme for Research Sta of the Vice Rectorate for Research at UPV/EHU (2020-2024).
7. Specic contributions of each author
Name and Surname
Conception and design of the work
Claudia Taboada Castell, Iker Merchán Mota and
María José Cantalapiedra González
Methodolody
Claudia Taboada Castell and María José Cantalapiedra González
Data collection and analysisClaudia Taboada Castell
Discussion and conclusions
Claudia Taboada Castell, María José Cantalapiedra González and
Iker Merchán Mota
Drafting, formatting, version review and approval
Claudia Taboada Castell, María José Cantalapiedra González and
Iker Merchán Mota
8. Conict of interest
e authors declare that there is no conict of interest contained in this article.
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