Information Disorder and Journalism: Mapping Digital Skills and
Training Decits Among Journalists in Portugal
Desorden informativo y periodismo: cartografía de las competencias digitales y
las carencias formativas de los periodistas en Portugal
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How to cite this article:
Dourado, T.; Torre, L. and Jerónimo, P. (2025). Information Disorder and Journalism: Mapping Digital Skills and Training Decits of Journalists in
Portugal.
Doxa Comunicación
, 40, pp. 279-304.
https://doi.org/10.31921/doxacom.n40a2720
Tatiana Dourado
. PhD in Communication from the Federal University of Bahia (2020) and associate researcher at
the National Institute of Science and Technology in Digital Democracy in Brazil. She is a postdoctoral fellow at the
MediaTrust.Lab - Local Media Laboratory for Civic Trust and Literacy, at the Universidade da Beira Interior, in Portugal.
She has published studies in national and international peer-reviewed scientic journals on media studies and political
communication, focusing mainly on misinformation and disinformation, fake news, the internet and politics and digital
governance.
Universidade da Beira Interior (UBI), Portugal
[email protected]
ORCID:
0000-0001-7208-8257
Luísa Torre.
Researcher at LabCom - Comunicação e Artes and an FCT fellow. She is a PhD candidate in Communication
Sciences at the Universidade da Beira Interior, Portugal, and holds a master's in Communication Sciences from the
University of Porto, Portugal. She worked as a multimedia journalist for 10 years in local newspapers in Brazil. Her
research interests include disinformation, news deserts, journalism and social media.
Universidade da Beira Interior (UBI), Portugal
[email protected]
ORCID:
0000-0002-5948-106X
Pedro Jerónimo.
Assistant researcher at LabCom, a research unit at the Universidade da Beira Interior, Covilhã,
Portugal, where he coordinates the MediaTrust.Lab project - Local Media Laboratory for Civic Trust and Literacy,
funded by the Foundation for Science and Technology. PhD in Information and Communication on Digital Platforms,
with a pioneering thesis on online news production in the local press in Portugal. Among his leadership positions in
scientic associations, he is currently co-chair of the Media Production Analysis working group of the IAMCR. He has
participated in national and international projects. He is a member of the editorial board of several leading scientic
journals, where he has also served as guest editor and reviewer.
Universidade da Beira Interior (UBI), Portugal
[email protected]
ORCID:
0000-0003-1900-5031
is content is published under Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial License. International License CC BY-NC 4.0
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1. Introduction
Journalists and the media industry face new challenges due to the intensied use of digital social media platforms. In an
era of ongoing technological advancement and shifts in communication paradigms (Cardoso, 2007; Ireton & Posetti, 2018),
journalism is encountering new diculties in maintaining its historically granted status as a mediator of public interest issues
in democracies. e rise of hyperpartisan and proselytising channels, content creators with large followings, the preference
for entertainment consumption, the shift away from news and the use of AI to produce misleading reports are challenges
for journalism, systematised in this article. ese factors are directly and indirectly linked to the global decline in trust in
journalism (Newman et al., 2024).
e exponential growth of unveried information, questionable sources, and harmful discourse has not only contaminated
citizens’ information diet but has also challenged perceptions of journalistic authority (Waisbord, 2018; Carlson, 2018), thereby
impacting journalistic routines (Carazo-Barrantes et al., 2023). Even large media outlets face challenges maintaining visibility
compared to other publications by low-credibility accounts and sources (Shao et al., 2018). is issue often aects local media,
which encounter additional obstacles, such as limited nancial and human resources, and often lack the expertise to navigate
these systems, optimise results based on algorithmic performance, and eectively attract the public’s attention. ese topics
will be examined in the empirical section of this article.
Assessing whether journalists possess digital skills and identifying ways to enhance their qualications to deliver engaging, high-
quality information to citizens, particularly those who are digitally literate, is a current demand, but one that faces structural
Recibido: 24/05/2024 - Aceptado: 26/09/2024 - En edición: 06/11/2024 - Publicado: 01/01/2025
Resumen:
El objetivo de este artículo es identicar y determinar los temas con
mayores necesidades de formación para las rutinas de producción del
periodismo local, nacional e internacional en Portugal. A partir de un
cuestionario (n=169), el estudio analizó las medias y realizó un análisis
factorial. Los resultados muestran que hay diferencias en las demandas
de formación: los periodistas locales dicen que necesitan aprender más
sobre técnicas para aumentar la visibilidad de las noticias que produ
-
cen en internet y las redes sociales, mientras que los periodistas naciona
-
les buscan más conocimientos sobre IA y los periodistas internacionales
sobre datos. El análisis factorial determinó tres factores, de los cuales los
dos primeros reejaban los intereses de los periodistas, más concreta
-
mente de los locales, y el segundo de los internacionales. El tercer factor
tuvo como elementos más fuertes temas relacionados con el contexto de
la desinformación, como el fact-checking.
Palabras clave:
Competencias digitales; formación de periodistas; desorden
informativo; desinformación; redes sociales.
Received: 24/05/2024 - Accepted: 26/09/2024 - Early access: 06/11/2024 - Published: 01/01/2025
Abstract:
e aim of this article is to identify and determine the areas with the
most signicant training needs within the production routines of local,
national and international journalism in Portugal. Using data from a
survey (n=169), the study analysed the mean values and performed
a factor analysis. e ndings show distinct training demands: local
journalists expressed a need to learn more about techniques to
increase the visibility of their news content on the internet and social
media. In contrast, national journalists sought greater knowledge in
articial intelligence, while international journalists focused on data.
e factor analysis revealed three factors; the rst two reect the
interests of local journalists, while the second reects international
journalists' interests. e third factor highlighted the strongest
elements associated with the context of disinformation, such as fact-
checking.
Keywords:
Digital skills; journalist training; information disorder; disinformation;
social media.
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obstacles related to professional precarity, especially among local media and journalists. Salary and career progression issues
in Portugal contribute to dissatisfaction among local journalists, with 60.4% reporting that they had considered leaving their
profession, mainly due to low income (Morais et al., 2020).
is situation is reected in the supply and demand of professional qualications. A recent study revealed that 47.5% of
local journalists in Portugal had not undertaken any recent additional training, while among those who had (65.4%), 41.1%
pursued it on their own initiative. Within the same sample, 96% agreed that disinformation is already a signicant issue in
the Portuguese context (Miranda et al., 2023), underscoring the need to develop new skills such as verication techniques,
establishing connections and real-time monitoring (Beers et al., 2020). Studies have shown that even professionals skilled
in fact-checking are prone to errors due to the pressures inherent in their professional routines, including the urgency to
publish rst, over-reliance on authorities, and channels that imitate ocial communication (Himma-Kadakas & Ojamets,
2022; Jerónimo & Sánchez-Esparza, 2023).
1.1. Structural Challenges for Journalism Posed by Digital Platforms
e increased exposure of individuals to misinformation and disinformation on social media platforms, characterised by their
intent and the scale of production and dissemination of self-serving messages (Benkler et al., 2018; Ecker et al., 2022), has
broad-reaching implications for journalism. In some contexts, these platforms have become primary spaces for consuming
and interacting with news and information (Rúas-Araújo et al., 2020). is study conceptually dierentiates misinformation
and disinformation as distinct yet complementary complex phenomena. Misinformation refers to the unintentional spread
of inaccuracies rooted in widely held yet inaccurate beliefs (Kuklinski et al., 2000). Disinformation, in contrast, involves
intentionally creating and disseminating diverse content aimed at deceiving audiences (Fallis, 2015), targeting both
individuals and digital platforms’ algorithms for political and nancial gain (Allcott & Gentzkow, 2017). us, we believe that
disinformation campaigns may reinforce and entrench societal misinformation.
Journalists recognise that online misinformation and disinformation have transformed their professional routines (Rodríguez
& Jiménez, 2021) and express concern about the impact of false information on journalism, news organisations, and, most
importantly, audiences (Saldaña & Vu, 2022). e rapid spread of viral political content on social media, alongside journalism’s
potentially weakened watchdog role, threats to journalistic objectivity, and the long-term decline in public trust in the media
translates into threats to journalism itself (Schapals, 2018). e proliferation of misinformation and disinformation is widely
regarded as one of the primary risks associated with social media platforms (World Economic Forum, 2024). erefore, to build
greater societal resilience to information overload, citizens must be better equipped to assess information quality, evaluate
source credibility and distinguish between news and opinion.
Additional intersecting issues directly impact the sustainability of journalistic activity in digital environments. Researchers
have noted that the increasing centrality of social media is reshaping the types of content prioritised for digital consumption.
Entertainment content, particularly popular among younger audiences and adults, has become a primary means of incidental
news exposure (Edgerly, 2017). Studies also indicate that young people do not actively seek news but consume it incidentally,
intermingled with other social media content (Boczkowski et al., 2017). Research further reveals that in areas where local
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newspapers have closed, residents are more likely to rely on social media for information (Barclay et al., 2022), which
signicantly aects community participation and knowledge acquisition (Ardia et al., 2020).
is aspect may be related to the gradual decline of interest in news, a phenomenon that leads individuals to avoid news. News
avoidance tends to manifest in distinct ways, consciously or unconsciously, depending on factors related to media systems, the
perceived credibility of journalism and how individuals are currently exposed to news (Skovgaard & Andersen, 2019). At the
individual level, being young, a woman, ideologically aligned with the left wing, relying on (and not only using) social media
as a primary source for accessing news, preference for soft as opposed to hard news are considered essential predictors of news
avoidance (To & Kalogeropoulos, 2020).
Another phenomenon challenging journalism is the professionalisation of content creation, which has transformed platforms
like YouTube and TikTok into essential sources of information. According to Huang & Yang (2024), YouTube’s recommendation
system contributes to partial lter bubbles by frequently suggesting videos from the same algorithmic category. Additionally,
YouTube is more likely to recommend entertainment videos after a user watches a news video. “e probability of entertainment
videos to be recommended is three times higher than the probability of news videos to be recommended, indicating that no
matter what users start with on YouTube, they are more likely to end up watching entertainment than news videos” (Huang &
Yang, 2024, p.2).
e decline in interest in news is reected in the logic of the social media attention economy, where content is optimised for
algorithmic circulation and mass consumption. is often involves using topics subject to political polarisation, eliciting aect
(particularly negative aect), favouring content that is easy to like and read, and sensationalised. Bessi et al. (2014) demonstrate
that those who have a strong preference for alternative sources are also more likely to interact with false information, which
aects the formation of beliefs and the revision of information.
e rise in content creators has expanded the number of information channels available on the web, social media and
messaging applications through which individuals access political information (Van Aelst et al., 2017). Many of these digital
channels and content lack professional training, operate independently of media systems and misappropriate the status of
journalists (Dourado et al., 2024). Finally, additional challenges for journalism on social media platforms include the limited
reach of journalistic sources within recommender systems (Bailo et al., 2021) and the lack of transparency around how big tech
companies classify and prioritise reliable sources.
Figure 1 systematises the structural challenges characterising the relationship between information disorder, digital platforms,
and contemporary journalism, as outlined in the theoretical framework developed in this chapter. It argues that four main
interconnected dimensions encompass secondary yet crucial aspects of message distribution and digital interactions on
social media.
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Figure 1. Structural Challenges for Journalistic Activity (Venn Diagram)
Source: created by the authors
us, strengthening journalism is seen as a way to curb the problems and eects stemming from misinformation and
disinformation. is approach underscores the need to promote ongoing training processes for professionals in the eld,
especially those working in local contexts. Many journalists regard journalism training as the most eective way to combat
misinformation and disinformation, including ongoing education and university-based professional development (Blanco-
Herrero & Arcila-Calderón, 2019). Although there is a widespread perception that journalists are skilled in fact-checking, in
Spain, only a minority have received specic training in this area (Gómez-Calderón & López-Martín, 2024).
2. Methodology
rough a quantitative exploratory study, this article aims to investigate the digital competencies and training needs of
journalists working in Portugal, considering the geographical scope of the local, national and international media. Specically,
it identies similarities and dierences in journalists’ challenges and needs and examines critical issues according to dierent
geographical areas. To achieve this, a questionnaire was conducted between August and October 2023, distributed via email by
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the
Comissão da Carteira Prossional de Jornalista
1
(CCPJ) in Portugal, yielding 169 valid responses (n=169). As of September
2023, the CCPJ’s email database included 5,394 registered professionals. e sample reliability is 80%, with a margin of error
of 5%.
e questionnaire consisted of 23 questions –20 close-ended and three open-ended– divided into six sections: 1.
Sociodemographic data, 2. Professional prole, 3. Education and training, 4. Digital competencies, and 5. Training needs.
Most questions were multiple-choice, with four questions using Likert scales ranging from (1) not at all to (5) quite a lot, from
(1) not at all to (advanced), from (1) never to (5) always, or from (1) not at all to (5) a lot. Responses were anonymised and
processed using SPSS (Statistical Package for the Social Sciences) version 28. For the quantitative analysis of the other research
question options, the programme Maxqda was used.
2.1. Sample characterisation
Age.
e largest age group is between 41 and 50 (32.5%), followed by those aged between 51 and 40 (29.6%). e third largest
group comprises respondents aged 21 to 30 (14.2%), followed by 31 to 40 (13.6%). Additionally, 7.7% of respondents are
between 61 and 70 years old, and 2.4% are over 70.
Gender.
e majority of respondents identify as men (60.4%), followed by women (39.1%) and others (0.6%).
Professional Qualication.
Most respondents hold a bachelor’s degree (53.8%), followed by those with secondary education
(16.6%) and a master’s degree (16%). To a lesser extent, respondents hold vocational training in journalism (3.6%) or other elds
(3.6%) and PhDs (3%). Respondents with postgraduate qualications (specialisation, MBA, etc.) represent (1.2%) (Other).
District.
e majority of journalists work in
Lisbon (36.1%), with much smaller proportions in other districts: Porto (12.4%),
Leiria (6.5%) and Coimbra (5.9%). Following these are Faro (5.3%) and Castelo Branco (5.3%), tied ahead of Aveiro (4.1%),
Azores (3.6%), Braga (3.6%) and Madeira (3%). Viana do Castelo (2.4%), Évora (1.8%), Guarda (1.8%), Setúbal (1.8%), Viseu
(1.8%), Beja (1.2%), Bragança (1.2%), Santarém (1.2%). Portalegre (0.60%) and Vila Real (0.60%) appear less frequently.
Work Experience.
A signicant proportion of respondents have over 15 years of work experience (59.8%). Among the rest,
some have up to ve years of experience (16%), between 5 and 10 years of experience (13.6%) and between 10 and 15 years of
experience (10.7%).
Professional Qualications.
Most respondents hold a professional journalist licence (74.6%), while others have a salaried employee
licence (10.7%), equivalent journalist licence (10.1%), temporary trainee licence (3.6%) and foreign correspondent licence (1.2%).
Position.
Most respondents are writers/reporters (40.2%), followed by board members (13%), permanent employees (10.7%), pho
-
tojournalists/graphic reporters (9.5%), section editors/coordinators (8.9%), and editors-in-chief/heads of editorial (4.7%). Free
-
1
e
Comissão da Carteira Prossional de Jornalista
(in English: Commission for the Professional Journalist Card) is an independent public law body in Portugal
regulated by the Estatuto do Jornalista (in English: Journalist Statute) and the Regime of Organização e Funcionamento da CCPJ (in English: Regulation of the
Organisation and Functioning of the CCPJ) and the Acreditação Prossional do Jornalista (in English: Professional Accreditation of Journalists). See:
https://
www.ccpj.pt/
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lancers make up 3.6%. Other roles include owners, retirees, news editors, infographic journalists, deputy editors-in-chief, directors,
editors, and interns, represented in smaller numbers.
Predominant Media Type.
Most respondents work in print media and/or its digital formats (55.6%), followed by digital-only media
(13.6%), radio and/or its digital media (13%), television and/or its digital media (8.9%) and news agencies (5.9%). Other types of
media are less common or without format.
Geographical Scope:
Respondents primarily work in national (45.6%) and local media (44.4%), with a smaller proportion in inter
-
national media (10.1%).
2.2. Organisation of Quantitative Analyses
Means.
Initially, we analysed and compared the means of the responses regarding journalists’ interests, the challenges they
encounter in their journalistic routines and their identied training needs based on their geographical areas. For the topics of
interest (
“For which of the activities listed below would you be most interested in receiving training?”)
and regarding perceived
diculties (
“What do you perceive as the most dicult aspects of your daily routine in journalism?”
), respondents were given
two options: No (1) and Yes (2). For training needs (
“Based on your work routine, how much do you feel you lack training on the
topics below?”
). Respondents rated each option on a scale from not at all (1), a little (2), neutral (3), a lot (4), and quite a lot (5).
Exploratory Factor Analysis.
An exploratory random factor analysis was conducted to identify the most signicant variables
related to the training needs of the surveyed journalists. is analysis focused on the question (
“Based on your work routine,
to what extent do you feel you lack training in the topics listed below?”
),
which included 18 variables aimed at understanding
which topics journalists perceive as lacking and which are benecial for their production routines. Initially, all 18 indicators
were calculated. However, four variables were discarded due to their values falling below 0.50, which was deemed too low
(
Articial Intelligence Tool, Design inking, Audiovisual Production and Editing and Entrepreneurship
). Consequently, the
factor analysis proceeded with 15 indicators, enabling the correlation of these variables and reducing them into three identied
factors. A signicance level of 0.05 was established for this study.
3. Results
3.1. Frequency Description
Education and Training.
Over half of the respondents (57.4%) reported having participated in some form of training in recent
years. Most of these training sessions were initiated by the journalists themselves (80.6%), while a smaller proportion was
organised by their media employers (17.3%). When training was collaboratively undertaken by the individual and their
employer or a trade union, the percentage was approximately 1%. ese ndings indicate that professionals in Portugal are
proactively seeking opportunities to update their knowledge. However, only a small percentage of these individuals engage
in training courses oered by academic institutions, trade unions, the journalistic sector, philanthropic organisations, civil
society, or public authorities, which typically provide such training (Becker & Lowrey, 2000). When asked whether the training
topics were related to fact-checking projects, less than half of respondents (42.4%) answered armatively. In comparison,
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the majority (57.6%) indicated they were not, citing topics such as digital writing, articial intelligence, and new information
and communication technologies instead. UNESCO states that courses focusing on the disinformation industry are a priority
(UNESCO, 2018), indicating a connection with the ndings of this study.
3.1.1. Changes in Journalistic Routines
Respondents overwhelmingly indicated that the issue of disinformation has greatly (36.1%) and signicantly (32%) aected
their journalistic routines. A smaller percentage of professionals reported that disinformation had moderately aected their
journalistic routines (18.9%), while even fewer noted that it had little (8.9%) or no impact (4.1%). Nevertheless, nearly all
(97.6%) agreed that journalists need to update their skills in response to the challenges of misinformation and disinformation.
ese ndings corroborate a previous survey indicating that misinformation and disinformation are perceived as the primary
challenges facing journalists in Portugal (Miranda et al., 2023). Furthermore, another study highlights how the “hyperconnected,
multiplatform, algorithms and AI-driven realities” present signicant challenges for journalism professionals and the industry
(Foà et al., 2023, p. 6).
3.1.2. Digital skills
Most respondents reported having a high level of knowledge of social media (55 %). e second-highest percentage claimed
to possess reasonable knowledge (26.6%), while the third (15.4%) stated that they had little knowledge, and the fourth (3%)
indicated having no knowledge. None of the respondents reported a complete lack of familiarity with social media. e vast
majority regularly utilise digital tools and social media in their journalistic routines, with the most common responses being
“quite a lot” (49,1%) and “a lot” (32%).
Others adopt social media at a “reasonable” level (14.2%) or “minimally” (4.7%). Previous studies indicate that nearly all
journalists in Portugal use social media for professional and personal purposes, with a predominant use of Facebook and
infrequent use of Twitter (renamed X in 2023). ey often use these platforms to follow conversations involving business
leaders, government representatives, and other sources (Mateus, 2015). Local journalists, particularly in central Portugal,
report using social media multiple times daily, primarily for information gathering, accessing email and managing their social
media accounts (Morais et al., 2020).
3.2. Statistical Analysis of Means
3.2.1. Topics of interest versus geographical scope
e topics “reporting and investigative journalism” (M=1.781; SD=0.415), “multimedia content editing” (M=1.757; SD=0.430),
“viral content verication” (M=1.728; SD=0.446), and “news dissemination in digital environments” (M=1.692; SD=0.463) are
generally identied as those of most signicant interest to the respondents. Among the topics of least interest are “agenda
setting and story selection” (M=1.414; SD=0.494), “audience collaboration” (M=1.473; SD=0.501), “audience interaction”
(M=1.556; 0.498) and “news production” (M=1.527; SD=0.501). Apart from investigative journalism, journalists surveyed
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express a greater need for training in skills associated with digital transformation and fact-checking. ese skills are perceived
as critical for journalists who have to eectively navigate the complexities of information disorder (García-Marín, 2021).
Figure 2. Respondents’ Topics of Interest
Source: created by the authors
A geographic analysis of the four most pertinent topics indicates that local journalists prioritise learning about “reporting and
investigative journalism” (M=1.813; SD=0.392), followed by “multimedia content editing” (M=1.827; SD=0.381), and closely
after, “collaboration with the audience” (M=1.440; SD=0.500). However, they show less interest in “audience collaboration”.
For journalists covering national news, the emphasis remains on expanding their knowledge of “reporting and investigative
journalism” (M=1.753; SD=0.434 and “viral content verication” (M=1.701; SD=0.461), while interest is comparatively lower in
“agenda identication and story selection” (M=1.377; SD=0.488).
Among those working internationally, “multimedia content editing” (M=1.824; SD=0.393) emerges as the primary area of
interest, followed by “viral content verication” and “reporting and investigative journalism”, both of which share the same
mean and standard deviation (M=1.765; SD=0.437). Conversely, most respondents regard access to training courses in “agenda
identication and story selection” (M=1.412; SD=0.507) as a lower priority (see Figure 2).
ese ndings indicate that while reporting and investigative journalism skills are the most relevant across all geographic
domains, identifying and elucidating viral content appears especially crucial for journalists covering national and international
news. It is worth noting that local media and international media journalists show a strong interest in training in multimedia
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content editing. However, it is striking that local journalists express less interest in training on audience collaboration, this may
suggest that they perceive their existing skills in this area as adequately developed.
Figure 3. Topics of Interest vs. Geographical Scope of the Media Where ey Work
Source: created by the authors
A one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was conducted to evaluate whether training needs diered among journalists from
dierent geographic areas. e Shapiro-Wilk test was performed, rejecting the null hypothesis of normal distribution for all
groups, with p<0.001. Furthermore, Levene’s test further indicated that variances across these groups are not homogenous
(p>0.05 for all groups, based on the median). As a result, ndings from Welch’s ANOVA test were examined, as the assumption
of equal variances was also violated in this sample. However, using Welch’s test incurs minimal power loss while enhancing
Type I error control (Delacre et al., 2019). is time results yielded p>0.05 across all groups, leading to a failure to reject the
null hypothesis and conclude that there are no signicant dierences between groups. us, it can be conrmed that although
journalists’ interest in training topics varies slightly, they remain broadly consistent across geographic regions.
3.2.2. Main Challenges vs. Geographical Scope
e survey also examined the primary challenges journalists encounter in their professional routines. e ndings are
categorised into four thematic groups: verication, audiences, social media and the internet, aggression, hate speech and
minorities.
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Verication.
Local and national journalists identify “using technological tools to verify photographs and videos” as one of
their most signicant challenges in the verication process (M=1.693; SD=0.464). Many journalists nd it somewhat easier to
verify texts than videos or photographs and admit to resorting to image experts (Rodríguez & Jiménez, 2021). is issue could
potentially be remedied through targeted training, as the use of various digital tools for data verication is not yet widespread
among journalists (Gómez-Calderón & López-Martín, 2024). In contrast, international journalists view “identifying, debunking,
and combating fake news” as their biggest challenge (M=1.706; SD=0.470), the second most pressing issue for national and
local journalists. Local journalists perceive “determining whether something is a deepfake” as their least signicant challenge
(M=1.453; SD=0.501), while it poses a challenge for international journalists that is comparable to “using technological tools
to verify photographs and videos” (M=1.647; SD=0.493).
is observation suggests that local journalists may not encounter instances of deception in their daily work, while such
challenges are more prevalent for journalists in other geographical areas. Once again, a one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA)
was conducted to evaluate whether there were dierences among journalists from various geographical regions regarding
the challenges they face in verifying content in their routines. e results from Welch’s ANOVA test again indicated that, for
all groups, p>0.05. Consequently, we conclude that it is not possible to state that there is a signicant dierence between the
groups.
Figure 4. Topics Related to Fact-Checking
Source: created by the authors
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It is noteworthy that the surveyed journalists did not regard “quickly verifying information to publish it without delay” as a
signicant diculty, despite several studies indicating that time pressure is one of the main obstacles to eective fact-checking
in journalistic routines (Schapals, 2018; Morais & Jerónimo, 2023; Saldaña & Vu, 2022). Notably, these represent the highest
averages among all the surveyed topics, which was to be expected, as journalists, particularly younger ones, view mastering
technological tools as one of the essential competencies for addressing disinformation (García-Marín, 2021).
Audiences.
As previously noted, local journalists primarily identify that “making the reader click on the news and read beyond
the headline ” (M=1.800; SD=0.403) is, by far, their most signicant challenge. is issue also emerges as a critical concern
for international journalists (M=1.529; SD=0.514) and ranks as the second most pressing challenge for national journalists
(M=1.584; SD=0.496). e option “teaching the audience what is and what is not news”, in turn, is perceived as the main
challenge for national journalists (M=1.675; SD=0.471), while it ranks as the second most signicant issue for local journalists
(M=1.640; SD=0.483) and international journalists (M=1.353; SD=0.493). is concern is closely associated with “nding
out what topics interest audiences most” (M=1.353; SD=0.493). It should be noted that in all three cases, “identifying the
newspaper’s target audience”, “writing for dierent audiences and age groups”, and “nding out what topics interest readers
most” do not rank among the most frequently encountered diculties in journalistic routines. us, it is observed that the
journalists’ main concerns regarding their audiences are related to promoting media and information literacy. Such promotion
is viewed as a response to the perceived crisis in journalism, aimed at restoring the authority and legitimacy of journalism and
a way to emphasise their journalistic authority. Additionally, it reects eorts to attract attention and new audiences while
aligning with journalism’s democratic goal of fostering informed and educated citizens (Jaakkola, 2022; García-Marín, 2021).
On this occasion, Welch’s ANOVA test results indicate that the dierence between groups for the variable “making the reader
click on the news item and read beyond the headline” is statistically signicant (t=5.466; DF=2; p=0.08). Subsequently, a post
hoc test was conducted to identify which specic groups exhibited signicant dierences. e Games-Howell test revealed that
the primary dierence lies between national and local journalists, with a mean I-J dierence of 0.22114 (SD=0.735; p=0.09).
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Figure 5. Audience-related issues
Source: created by the authors
Social Media and the Internet.
Regarding this aspect, “increasing the reach of the content they produce” (M=1.763; SD=0.426)
is identied as the most signicant diculty across all groups. Journalists’ concerns about the need to balance rigorous
content verication with the need for engaging storytelling align with previous studies (Schapals, 2018). e second biggest
challenge for local and national journalists is “distinguishing the right type of content for dierent social media platforms”
with local journalists reporting M=1.733; SD=0.445; and national journalists, M=1.519; SD=0.503). In contrast, the second
major challenge for international journalists is “conducting live broadcasts and appearing in videos” (M=1.529; SD=0.514).
International journalists considered “distinguishing the right type of content for dierent social media” their third greatest
diculty (M=1.412; SD=0.507). Overall, “producing content for social media” ranks as the least prioritised among all three
types of journalists. Once again, Welch’s ANOVA test results indicate a statistically signicant dierence among the groups
for the variable “distinguishing the right type of content for dierent social media” (t=5.352; DF=2; p=0.08). Subsequently, the
Games-Howell test revealed that the main dierence exists between national and local journalists, with a mean I-J dierence
of 0.21663 (SD=0.7759; p=0.016).
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Figure 6. Topics Related to the Internet and Social Media Audiences
Source: created by the authors
Aggression, hate speech and minorities.
In this category, there is a more balanced perception regarding the greatest diculties
journalists face. In highly polarised environments, such as social media, journalists correcting mis- and disinformation
may encounter backlash and retaliation when their statements challenge the beliefs of certain groups (Saldaña & Vu, 2022).
Furthermore, a signicant proportion of journalists have reported experiencing some form of discursive threats in these online
environments (Blanco-Herrero et al., 2023). e results for the variables “covering controversial and incendiary statements
from sources” (M=1.456; SD=0.500) and “adequately covering hate speech and extremism online” (M=1.438; SD=0.498) are
very close, indicating that these are considered the most challenging aspects for journalists. is concern may be related to the
potential for malicious use of the information they produce, prompting journalists to ensure that their texts are very clear to
prevent misinterpretation or exploitation for malicious agendas (Carazo-Barrantes et al., 2023).
For international journalists, “dealing with aggressive comments” (M=1.471; SD=0.514) is their second biggest concern, after
“covering controversial and incendiary statements from sources” (M=1.529; SD=0.514).National journalists perceive “covering
controversial and incendiary statements from sources” and “monitoring and covering issues involving minorities and
inequalities” as equally signicant challenges (both, M=1.455; SD=0.501). In contrast, local journalists do not consider “dealing
with aggressive comments” and “monitoring and covering issues involving minorities and inequalities” to be challenging. is
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time, as indicated by the close proximity of the results illustrated in Figure 7, Welch’s ANOVA test ndings reveal that p>0.05
was found for all groups. erefore, we conclude that it is not possible to assert that there are signicant dierences among
the groups.
Figure 7. Audience-Related Topics: Aggression, Hate Speech, and Minorities
Source: created by the authors
Other.
Respondents identied other reasons that either relate to other categories or pre-existing categories. Key concerns
include the precarious nature of the profession, which is characterised by demands for immediacy, low specialisation and
low investment in producing in-depth reports. Other challenges include a lack of funding, which underscores the need to
explore new nancing methods for journalistic activities, including securing international grants. ere is also a call for
improved enforcement, particularly regarding allegations of misappropriating journalist credentials and the proliferation of
unchecked information on social media. ese diculties are perceived as signicant challenges currently facing the sector.
Previous studies indicate that journalists perceive both social media and precarious working conditions as important factors
contributing to the rise of fake news (Blanco-Herrero & Arcila-Calderón, 2019).
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Figure 8. Other Diculties
Source: created by the authors
In the preexisting categories pertaining to the Internet and social media, journalists report diculties in dealing with superiors
regarding the role of social media and in recognising its signicance for journalism. Concerning audiences, they identify
additional challenges, such as helping to educate the public on how to consume news on social media and how to leverage
technology to promote media literacy. Lastly, in the case of verication, journalists emphasised the importance of knowing
how to use AI to replace mechanical tasks within their professional routines.
However, it is essential to note that among all the categories of diculties in the survey (verication, audiences, social media
and the internet, aggression and hate speech and minorities), the highest averages were observed in the rst set of variables.
Other studies have shown that journalists regard the acquisition of digital skills and the mastery of specic tools for fact-
checking and data verication, along with an understanding of social media dynamics, as essential tools for identifying
patterns in the production and dissemination of false information (García-Marín, 2021).
3.2.3. Training needs
Among the topics identied by the surveyed journalists as requiring further training were “Design inking and Innovation”
(M=3.672; SD=1.255), “How algorithms work” (M=3.61; SD=1.292) and “Using AI tools” (M=3.5602; SD=1.3) (Figure 10). ese
ndings underscore the need for more in-depth training and regarding contemporary technology and innovation topics. is
need may be linked to the relative seniority of the professionals in the sample and their perception of the implications of new
technologies for journalistic routines.
e topics that journalists perceived as requiring the least amount of training included “Creating newsletters” (M=2.84;
SD=1.241), “Strategic Use of Social Media to Create Communities” (M=2.99; SD=1.255) and “Content Management Platforms”
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(M=3.01; SD=1.258). Given that the sample did not follow a normal distribution (as indicated by the Shapiro-Wilk test, which
showed p<0.001 for all variables), a Friedman test (Liu & Xu, 2022) was conducted. e results indicate a statistically signicant
dierence among the mean ranks of the related groups (
χ
2=151.201; DF=17; p<0.001).
Figure 9. Training Needs (by Average)
Source: created by the authors
When examining journalists’ responses based on geographic scope (local, national and international) (Figure 10), local
journalists identify SEO (Search Engine Optimisation)” (M=3.51; SD=1.222); “Use of social media to disseminate news”
(M=3.36; SD=1.166); and “Use of social media to build communities” (M=3.13; SD=1.138) as the most relevant training needs
compared to the other two groups. ese ndings align with previous research (Jerónimo, 2015), which indicates that local
Portuguese media often respond reactively to the actions of national media. Consequently, the concerns expressed by local
journalists may be perceived as somewhat outdated by their counterparts in national and international media. While local
journalists seek visibility, national and international journalists are concerned with more contemporary issues such as AI.
Among national journalists, the most signicant training needs, relative to the other two groups, are identied in “e use of AI
tools” “ (M=3.72; SD=1.271) and “e Creation of Podcasts” (M=3.25; SD=1.338). Finally, for journalists working in international
media, the most pronounced training needs compared to the other groups are “Data journalism” (M=3.65; SD=1.222) and
“Data visualisation” (M=3.41; SD=1.229).
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Figure 10. Training Needs vs. Geographical Scope (by Average)
Source: created by the authors
Interestingly, all three groups of respondents indicated a comparable need for training in “Identifying and investigating
disinformation”, “Digital fact-checking techniques and tools”, “Understanding how algorithms work”, and “Producing and
editing audiovisual material”. A one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was conducted to assess whether there were dierences
in training needs among journalists from various geographical areas. However, the results from Welch’s ANOVA were not
considered statistically signicant for any group (for all hypotheses, p>0.05).
3.3. Factor analysis
Finally, following an attempt with 15 items, of which three were excluded, we sought to verify the adequacy of the factor
analysis. e results yielded satisfactory values for the Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) test (0.86) and Bartlett’s sphericity test (x2
= 1576.190; p<0.05). ree items were removed from the analysed questions designed to investigate the primary training gaps
in journalistic routines due to their variance for common factors being less than 50%. Ultimately, three factors were identied,
each with eigenvalues greater than 1, accounting for 68.9% of the variance of the construct studied (Figure 11).
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Figure 11. Sedimentation of factors
Source: created by the authors
e rst factor comprises the largest variety of relevant items, with a maximum loading of 0.84 (graphic content for social
media) and a minimum loading of 0.14 (database research). is factor has an eigenvalue of 7.04, which accounts for 50.3% of
the variance. e most signicant items within this factor pertain to journalistic production routines, encompassing aspects
such as content management and production for the Internet and social media (items 10, 8, 9, 11, 14, 12) and the development
of journalistic languages and formats (items 13 and 2), with particular emphasis on audio-based content such as podcasts.
Consequently, this dimension is labelled
“online news production and dissemination”.
Factor 2 consists of items with a minimum
loading of 0.02 (use of social media to disseminate news) and a maximum loading of 0.87 (data visualisation), resulting in an
eigenvalue of 1.4, which explains 10.2% of the variance. is factor encompasses items related to data journalism (items 5 and
4) and the newsletter format (item 1), a dimension that will be designated as “
data journalism
”.
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Table 1. Communalities, Factor Loadings and Rotated Matrix (VARIMAX)
VariableCommunalities
Factor Loadings
F1F2F3
1.
Newsletters0.620.454
0.649
0.018
2.
Podcasts0.52
0.630
0.3480.095
3.
Content Management
0.580.5980.4760.027
4.
Data Journalism
0.800.145
0.855
0.237
5.
Data Visualisation
0.850.167
0.875
0.252
6.
Investigating disinformation
0.830.2310.228
0.856
7.
Fact-checking techniques
0.840.2580.151
0.871
8.
Using Social Media to
Disseminate News
0.71
0.800
0.0250.273
9.
Using Social Media to Build
Communities
0.65
0.786
0.1050.164
10.
Graphic Content for Social
Media
0.75
0.841
0.2040.058
11.
Algorithm Functionality
0.57
0.668
0.2490.255
12.
SEO0.62
0.737
0.2190.183
13.
Storytelling0.61
0.663
0.2540.331
14.
Social Media Data Analysis
0.62
0.675
0.2420.327
λ
j
% Explained
9.6477.0441.4301.173
68.9%50.3%10.2%8.3%
Extraction Method: Principal Component Analysis.
Rotation Method: Varimax with Kaiser Normalisation.
a. Rotation converged in 6 iterations.
Source: created by the authors
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Factor 3, with a maximum loading of 0.87 (fact-checking techniques) and a minimum of 0.02 (content management), has an
eigenvalue of 1.1 and accounts for 8.3% of the variance. e items with the highest loadings on this factor pertain to journalism’s
role in addressing and constructing responses to disinformation. is underscores the need for newsrooms, particularly
traditional ones, to investigate disinformation and master fact-checking techniques. is includes fact-checking initiatives,
which may not necessarily require specialisation. Notably, only the creation of a newsletter (item 1) shows a relatively strong
loading across more than one factor, although it is more strongly associated with Factor 2 (Table 1). us, this dimension is
labelled
“fact-checking”.
4. Conclusion
is study sought to identify the challenges Portuguese journalists face in developing digital competencies to combat
misinformation and disinformation. It also sought to determine their training needs based on the geographical scope of
the media outlets where they work, categorised as local, national and international. Using a questionnaire with 169 valid
responses, the survey identied a latent demand across various topics. However, dierences became apparent when the data
were analysed broadly and in a more needs-oriented way regarding geographical coverage. Overall, no signicant dierences
emerged among local, national, and international journalists regarding topics of interest, diculties in their routines, and
training needs. Nonetheless, the data reveal some noteworthy trends.
Design thinking and innovation, understanding how algorithms work and the use of AI received the highest average responses,
indicating a strong perceived need for training in these areas. However, prioritising these topics varies depending on the
journalists’ scope of coverage. None of the three prioritised topics align with the specic training needs emphasised by
journalists in each geographical area. For local professionals, SEO (Search Engine Optimisation) is important; for national
journalists, AI tools are prioritised; and for international journalists, data-driven research is the most signicant focus.
Overall, the data indicate that local journalists are primarily concerned with increasing the visibility of their stories on social
media platforms and building communities. National journalists prioritise further training in podcasts and AI, both emerging
industry demands that impact production routines. Meanwhile, international journalists are more interested in enhancing
data literacy, specically data-driven investigative journalism and data visualisation.
is division is evident from the factor analysis, which identied three signicant factors. e rst factor encompasses more
robust items related to more general topics concerning social media, such as news dissemination and community building,
which are preferences of local journalists (“online news production and dissemination”). e second factor comprises more
robust items linked to data journalism, which is of interest to professionals working in international media outlets (“data
journalism”). e third factor demonstrates a higher loading on topics related to disinformation investigation and fact-
checking techniques (“fact-checking”).
Local and national journalists demonstrate a greater overall interest in training, as reected in higher averages across nearly
all variables, with the exception of data journalism topics, where professionals working in international media express a
greater need for training. is trend is further highlighted in the factor analysis, particularly in factor 2 (“data journalism”).
Broadly speaking, local and national journalists exhibit similar training interests, demonstrated in factor 1 (“online news
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production and dissemination”). Although news production and dissemination appeal to national and local journalists,
certain discrepancies emerge. Specically, local journalists appear more concerned with issues related to digital environments
and their audiences, such as producing tailored content for various social media, identifying their audience on social media,
expanding the reach of their content, learning SEO, learning how to use content management platforms, building online
communities and encouraging readers to click beyond the headline. While national journalists share many of these interests,
they are more inclined toward innovations in online journalism, such as AI, detecting deepfakes, design thinking, podcast
creation and storytelling techniques. Previous studies have similarly identied this distinction between local and national
journalists (Jerónimo, 2015).
Fact-checking (factor 3) emerges as the area of greatest alignment among journalists across all geographic scopes. e
challenges, interests and training needs associated with fact-checking and viral disinformation identied in factor 3 (“fact-
checking”) appear to be broadly shared across local, national and international journalists. Additionally, this issue undeniably
sparks the interest of all journalists facing the challenges of online disinformation dissemination. e tools necessary
for conducting fact-checking are still not well known or utilised by all journalists, and in line with the ndings of a study
conducted in Spain (Gómez-Calderón & López-Martín, 2024), most journalists believe they possess the necessary skills, but
many recognise a need for retraining or more specic training on this matter.
However, this study has some limitations; it relied on a predened list of topics encompassing areas of interest, diculties, and
training needs, which may overlook other relevant issues not examined in this research. Furthermore, the ndings are conned
to the experiences and working conditions of journalists in Portugal, indicating that future studies could focus on comparative
analyses. Despite these limitations, this study can serve as a guide for the development of future training programmes and
courses designed to equip journalists with more tools to combat disinformation.
5. Acknowledgements
is article has been translated into English by Sophie Phillips, to whom we are grateful for her work.
e authors would like to thank the Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia (FCT) for the funding of MediaTrust.Lab (
http://doi.
org/10.54499/PTDC/COM-JOR/3866/2020
), the project that led to this study: Luísa Torre’s doctoral scholarship (2023.05397.
BD); Pedro Jerónimo’s contract (
https://doi.org/10.54499/CEECINST/00016/2021/CP2828/CT0004
); and LabCom (
http://
doi.org/10.54499/UIDB/00661/2020
), the centre where the authors conduct their research.
<p>[Enlace de URL / hc (has AS)]</p>
<p>[Enlace de URL / hc (has AS)]</p>
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<p>[Enlace de URL / hc (has AS)]</p>
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6. Specic contributions of each author
Name and Surname
Conception and design of the workTatiana Dourado, Luísa Torre and Pedro Jerónimo
Methodolody
Tatiana Dourado, Luísa Torre
and
Pedro Jerónimo
Data collection and analysisTatiana Dourado
and
Luísa Torre
Discussion and conclusionsTatiana Dourado
and
Luísa Torre
Drafting, formatting, version review and approvalTatiana Dourado, Luísa Torre
and
Pedro Jerónimo
7. Conict of interest
e authors declare that there is no conict of interest contained in this article.
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