Video refereeing and football. Narratives regarding the power of
technology at the service of major sport events
Videoarbitraje y fútbol. Narrativas en el poder de la tecnología al servicio del
espectáculo
doxa.comunicación |
nº 42, pp. 189-206
| 189
January-June of 2026
ISSN: 1696-019X / e-ISSN: 2386-3978
How to cite this article:
Cobo Durán, S. and Marín-Montín, J. (2026). Video refereeing and football. Narratives regarding the power of technology at the service of major
sport events.
Doxa Comunicación
, 42, pp. 189-206.
https://doi.org/10.31921/doxacom.n42a2776
Sergio Cobo Durán.
Senior lecturer in the Department of Audio-visual Communication and Advertising at the University
of Seville. He has a Bachelor’s Degree in Audio-visual Communication and a PhD in Communication, which received a
qualication of
Summa Cum Laude
by unanimous decision. e subjects he imparts include Audio-visual Scriptwriting,
the History of Spanish Cinema, and the eory and History of Documentaries and Advertising. He has participated on
various R+D+i projects, and is currently with another endeavour entitled, New Narratives, Screens, and Social Realities
in Spanish Cinema from 2011-2022. Professor Cobo Durán has given speeches at national and international conferences
and congresses, and he has undertaken research stays and imparted seminars on Spanish cinema at the Universidad
Austral (Buenos Aires, Argentina), Universidad de la República (Montevideo, Uruguay), and Aichi Prefectural University
(Nagakute, Japón), among others. He is a member of the research group entitled,
Liga de Investigación en Comunicación y
Cultura.
Género(S), Narrativa, Ideología y Estudios Visuales
[Research association of communication and culture, gender/s,
narrative, ideology, and visual studies] (LIGAINCOM-SEJ694). His main lines of research are audio-visual narratives,
screenwriting, alternative cinema in Spain, contemporary ction, and the study of documentaries and non-ction.
Universidad de Sevilla, Spain
[email protected]
ORCID:
0000-0003-0374-6601
Joaquín Marín-Montín.
Senior lecturer in the Department of Audio-visual Communication and Advertising at the
University of Seville
.
PhD in Audio-visual Communication and a BA in the same discipline. He was a pre-doctoral
fellow on the Intercampus Programme of the Spanish Agency for International Cooperation at the Universidade
Federal de Santa Maria (Brazil), and later participated in the Socrates-Erasmus Programme for ird Cycle Studies
at Aarhus Universitet (Denmark). He has completed post-doctoral stays at the Centre for Olympic Studies (UAB)
and the Universidade Feevale (Brazil). Professor Marín-Montín is a member of the research team, Image and Visual
Culture in the Field of Audio-visual Communication (EIKON). He teaches on the Bachelor’s Degree in Audio-visual
Communication, the dual Bachelor’s Degree in Journalism and Audio-visual Communication, and on the Master’s
Degree in Screenwriting, Narratives, and Audio-visual Creativity. His main lines of research are audio-visual content
and the relationship between communication and sport. He has published several articles in the following scientic
journals:
Communication & Sport
;
International Journal of Sports Marketing and Sponsorship
;
adComunica
;
Revista
cientíca de estrategias, tendencias e innovación en comunicación
;
L’Atalante
;
and
index.comunicación
. He has also
authored several book chapters issued by renowned publishers such as Routledge, Peter Lang, and IGI Global.
Universidad de Sevilla, Spain
[email protected]
ORCID:
0000-0001-7869-4469
is content is published under Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial License. International License CC BY-NC 4.0
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1. Introduction
e technological development of audio-visual production has historically led to many changes in sports. When sport became
a business, the rules were transformed, as it was forced to adapt to the requirements of television (Whannel, 1992). e live
broadcast of major sporting events includes the most typical features of televised sport, as these programmes are transmitted
in real time. Moreover, they break the routine, take place in remote locations, and require meticulous planning (Dayan and
Katz, 1995). Such events include the Olympic Games and the Football World Cup, which attract record audiences, largely due to
their grandiose nature, the ability to attract large crowds, and their international impact (Roche, 2000). e commercialisation
of broadcasting rights for sports competitions has allowed audio-visual operators to invest in sophisticated resources to
improve the viewer’s experience, such as developing interactive options using second screens (Kroon, 2017; Marín-Montín,
2020; Elishar-Malka, et al., 2021). e advent of video streaming platforms for the broadcast of sporting events, along with
business agreements between television operators, has increased the number of subscriptions for the main competitions and
raised the quality of coverage, thereby arousing more interest among the audience (Owens, 2021; Moya-López et al., 2024).
e technical resources devoted to sports broadcasting have not only grown, but they have continuously incorporated innovation
into audio-visual production as well (Roger Monzó, 2015). One such novelty is oering the audience various simultaneous
content signals through multi-screen viewing (Hutchins et al., 2019), which was introduced into the television coverage of
motorsports such as Formula One Racing, and later extended to other sports like football. is resource is incorporated into
the broadcast narrative, thereby increasing the entertaining nature and excitement of televised sports (Wyver, 20 22). us, by
Recibido: 18/09/2024 - Aceptado: 06/12/2024 - En edición: 04/02/2025 - Publicado: 01/01/2026
Resumen:
Los deportes más profesionalizados utilizan herramientas audiovisua
-
les para agilizar decisiones arbitrales, modicando el desarrollo regla
-
mentario de diferentes disciplinas (Benítez, 2019). A pesar de su popu
-
laridad, el fútbol ha sido de los últimos deportes en adoptar la revisión
de vídeo al reglamento de sus principales competiciones. Este artículo
analiza la aplicación del videoarbitraje en el fútbol (VAR) considerando
el caso español. De igual forma, el trabajo busca examinar cómo el VAR
modica el relato narrativo de las retransmisiones en directo. Para su
elaboración se han seleccionado situaciones del VAR correspondientes a
LaLiga 2023-24 (públicos en el canal YouTube LaLiga, DAZN y Movis
-
tar). A partir de los registros seleccionados se podrá valorar la manera
formal, estética y narrativa en la que la televisión reeja el momento
del VAR.
Palabras clave:
Realización audiovisual; videoarbitraje (VAR); narrativa; fútbol;
tecnología.
Received: 18/09/2024 - Accepted: 06/12/2024 - Early access: 04/02/2025 - Published: 01/01/2026
Abstract:
Nowadays, top professional sports use audio-visual tools to speed
up referee decision-making, thereby modifying the regulatory
development of various sporting domains (Benítez, 2019). Despite
its popularity, football was one of the last sports to implement video
replay as part of the regulations of its main competitive events. is
article analyses the use of Video Assistant Referee (VAR) in football,
with a particular focus on Spain. e study also examines how VAR
modies the narrative of live broadcasts. To carry out the research,
the authors have selected certain VAR situations from the 2023-24
LaLiga football season, which are available on the YouTube channels
of LaLiga, DAZN, and Movistar. Based on the recordings chosen, it is
possible to evaluate the way in which television reects VAR situations
in terms of form, aesthetics, and narration.
Keywords:
Audio-visual production; video assistant referee (VAR); narrative;
football; technology.
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using a screen divided into multiple squares, fans can follow an event from dierent angles, along with statistics and graphic
animation, which generally require a subscription when oered as an interactive tool (Marín-Montín, 2021).
A key ingredient in the audio-visual production of sports is the replay, which involves “inserting parts of the deferred story
into dierent independent blocks” (Benítez, 2013: 357), which is used to clarify actions that have gone unnoticed during
the live broadcast. In football, replay is a common resource of television broadcasts, which is used to settle disputes such as
being osides, as well as other rules violations such as the use of hands and other types of fouls. e replay is used during
interruptions in the game, at which point the sequence of shots regarding the questionable play is immediately available
for review in order to understand exactly what has happened (Perry et al., 2019). Furthermore, technological advances have
provided other options for sports production, such as super slow-motion cameras, which enable high-quality images to be
captured thanks to a recording system of 75 or more frames per second (Owens, 2021). is resource makes it possible to
record the most impressive moves and include them as bonus content in the broadcast of important matches. An additional
resource used in football coverage is the 3D replay system. is technology was brought in from major US sports federations
such as the NFL and NBA, and it was implemented in the Spanish football league during the 2016/17 season. It is based on the
computer processing of a system of 38 ultra-high-denition cameras, which oers 360º volumetric replays from any angle and
position (Torres-Martín et al., 2022).
On the other hand, graphics are another important feature of audio-visual sport production, which are used to provide as
much information as possible in order to complement the images captured by the cameras, along with the voices of the sports
commentators. Moreover, there is a dierence between text and illustration graphics, which can either be stationary or moving
(Owens, 2021). In the case of football, the most common graphic feature in a broadcast or summary of a match is the sign in the
top left-hand corner, which shows the score and time (Marín-Montín, 2021). Sometimes additional information is provided
depending on the type of action that has taken place, whether a foul, substitution, osides, or other occurrence. Likewise,
graphics also provide initial line-ups and sport statistics, which is highly valued by sports fans (Cummins et al., 2016). As in
most key football competitions, the graphics for Spain’s La Liga are developed by an external company, which is sub-contracted
to provide this service to television operators.
In addition to the aforementioned visual aspects, televised sports includes sound components that are mainly comprised
of narration, commentary, and ambient sound. us, the narrator leads the description of what is happening in the event,
sometimes accompanied by commentators who complement the story, and whose number varies depending on the type of
coverage in question. In this regard, it is common for one of the speakers to be on the ground in order to oer a closer account
of the action, and to conduct interviews as well. On the other hand, ambient sound refers to sound that is directly linked to
the sporting event, such as that of kicking the ball, or the occasional shout of a coach (Marín-Montín, 2021), as well as to the
audience in the stands, whose reactions and chants contribute signicantly to the authenticity, immediacy, and liveliness of
the soundscape (Graakjær, 2020). Based on the features mentioned above, the audio-visual production of a football match
integrates image and sound composed of repetition, graphic elements, and commentaries, which try to provide the spectator
with a coherent analysis, evaluation and assessment of the action taking place, since the fans are not physically present at
the event (Barneld, 2013). As such, it must be pointed out that sports broadcasts on television have become a complete
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communicative process, either involving the journalistic process (constructing the event), or reception (reconstructing the
same act) (Blanco, 2012).
2. Video assistant refereeing in the world of sport
Major sports competitions have beneted from advances in television production tools by incorporating them into refereeing
methods, which has even changed the development of rules in dierent sporting environments (Benítez, 2013). us, the rules
of some mega-events in sports allow the ocial judge of the competition to use video technology and computer tools to make
decisions regarding certain plays in the game, thereby avoiding mistakes at crucial moments that can have an undue impact
on the results (Petersen-Wagner & Lee Ludvigsen, 2023). For this reason, these major competitions have a system of regulated
technical assistance for referee decisions, which varies according to the sport as follows: American football has
Replay Ocial
;
Rugby uses
Television Match Ocial
, or TMO; Basketball has
Instant Replay
, and so on.
e premier American football league is the NFL, which is the longest-standing user of instant replay for supporting referees’
decisions. Moreover, this technology has been a regular part of the game since 1999. According to Oates (2014), the use of
instant replay by the NFL is not only for enforcing the rules of a complex sport, but is also a key component of television
entertainment. Instant replay has become part of the spectacle for both viewers and live fans, who can even watch replays
on big screens in the sports stadiums where the games are played. However, in recent years doubts have been raised about
its use, such as whether the technology can adequately correct erroneous decisions without becoming a hindrance (Chen &
Davidson, 2022), due to images being fragmented, the search for multiple angles for repetition, and other cumbersome actions
as a result of innovation.
As for rugby, TMO technology has been used since 2001 in certain competitions overseen by the international federation
known as World Rugby. Its implementation is an attempt to reduce the number of incorrect referee decisions made during a
match, yet at the same time its use has given the sport more media coverage as well (Frandsen, 2020). Along the same lines,
rugby fans are calling for more information during the TMO decision-making process in the stadium, requesting that the sound
of the referees’ discussions and subsequent decision using the video assistant should be broadcast over the stadium’s sound
system throughout the review process. Of course, this depends on the images and camera angles provided by the television
signal broadcasting the match (Stoney & Fletcher, 2021).
On the other hand, basketball uses instant replay as a support tool for referees, which was implemented in the NBA
in the
2002-2003 season. Moreover, it is now an integral part of the narrative framework of this sport, as fans in their homes, local
bars, and live sports venues anxiously await the referee’s decision after viewing the replays (Tingle, 2020). In addition to instant
replay, basketball has incorporated the
challenge
system for coaches during the games, which allows them to request instant
replays to verify certain key moves, provided that a series of requirements are met, although the nal verdict on the play still
resides with the referee (López, 2019).
Along with video replays, many sports now use computer tools to enhance referee decision-making which, when combined
with video cameras, can generate virtual 3D simulations of the action. One sport that stands out in this regard is tennis, which
has been using the Hawk-Eye system for live television coverage of the main tournaments since 2006, the main objective
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of which is to accurately follow the trajectory of the ball to see if it falls inside or outside the line. e technology ended up
being incorporated into the ocial regulations of the professional tennis circuit as a verication system (Bal & Dureja, 2012;
Lingenti, 20 24). is technology has made it possible to reduce controversies in the decision-making of line judges. Moreover,
it a valuable part of refereeing and a benet to television viewers as well (Collins & Evans, 2008). e success of the Hawk-Eye
has led to its use in other sports such as cricket, volleyball, and football, in order to accurately follow the trajectory of the ball
at decisive moments, thereby reducing referee errors.
Despite its popularity, football (soccer) was one of the last sports to incorporate technological tools into its major competitions
to support referee reviews. e rst technology ocially implemented by the FIFA was during the 2014 World Cup in Brazil.
e tool is known as Goal-Line Technology (GLT), and it immediately informs the referee when a goal has been scored, or
in other words, when the ball has completely crossed the goal line into the goal (Simon, 2020). By using a set of cameras
surrounding the eld, the GLT does not aim to replace the referee, but to help them in critical situations to make the right
decision (Spagnolo et al., 2015). In addition to the FIFA World Cup, this goal technology is also being used by the UEFA, as well
as national competitions such as the Premier League, Bundesliga, and Italy’s Serie A. In spite of the foregoing, there are critical
voices as well. Many fans believe that such technology distorts the atmosphere of football by reducing the debate surrounding
crucial decisions about controversial goals (Winand & Fergusson, 2016).
On the other hand, the system of video assisted refereeing (VAR) was ocially approved and authorised by FIFA in March
2018 after being tested in 2017 at the Confederations Cup. e introduction of VAR technology is intended to assist referees
in making decisions at controversial and crucial moments of a game, although in many cases it is also used to resolve general
disputes related to a match (Petersen-Wagner & Lee Ludvigsen, 2023). Furthermore, the regulations state that VAR cannot
make decisions, and is only used to support the decisions of the head referee (FIFA, 2018).
Major football championships have incorporated VAR into their regulations, although its use has stirred debate, with
counterarguments stating that it sometimes disrupts the rhythm and negatively aects the natural ow of the game (Bao &
Han, 2023). While this may be true, the fact is that behind the refereeing decisions in today’s professional football there is
a lucrative, worldwide industry where many interests are at stake, ranging from players’ salaries to club revenues, and from
shareholder prots to gambling proceeds (Nuhrat, 2023). Nevertheless, there is an element of emotional attachment and fan
enthusiasm in football, where VAR is still not seen as a technological aid to a fairer game, but rather an artefact with the
power to produce unforeseen consequences (Petersen-Wagner & Lee Ludvigsen, 2023; Schwab, Steverding, & Rein, 2023).
Furthermore, the implementation of video refereeing in football has led to a discrepancy between fans watching the game
from the stadium, who rely mainly on the rst impression and perceive less transparency regarding VAR decisions, and the
spectators watching from home, who receive quantitatively more information with many slow-motion replays, in addition to
the commentaries from the TV channel itself (Märtins, Westmattelmann, & Schewe, 2023).
Moreover, with regard to VAR, we should also mention the tool known as Semi-Automated Oside Technology (SAOT), an
instrument used to support both video assistant and on-eld referees to make accurate oside decisions more quickly (FIFA,
2023). SAOT made its debut in the 2022 European Super Cup Final, and since then its use has spread not only to FIFA matches,
but gradually to other top leagues as well. anks to 3D animation, the so-called semi-automatic oside technology avoids
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adding to the confusion in explanations between broadcasters (Viswanathan et. al, 2023) by improving communication with
both spectators at home and fans in the stadium who can visualise very clearly when there is an oside foul (Moñino, 2022).
In short, the broadcast of football matches on television has been incorporating all of this revolutionary technology into the
sports narrative, which has led to referee reviews through VAR and the variety of tools associated with it. is situation has
turned refereeing into a new element for enhancing audience interest, an example of which is showing a replay sequence to
clarify controversial decisions, or displaying aspects of the game that have gone unnoticed live (Owens, 2021; Benítez, 2020).
Authors such as Umberto Eco (1986) have reected on how the presence of television cameras has modied various events,
whether related to politics, ceremonies, or spectacular encounters such as football matches. In this sense, the inclusion of
an entire meta-narrative in sport through video refereeing undoubtedly enhances the suspense involved (Prósper, 2019)
by making it a setting in which new narrative structures can be incorporated. In an increasingly globalised environment,
large business conglomerates tend to rely on content that will ensure a mass audience. As such, the advent of new narrative
structures through the interpretation of the refereeing meta-narrative will only increase the content, number of screens, and
readings of the same action, thereby leading to more debate and discussion on television. Given its high degree of audience
loyalty, televised football matches are a driving force for the sale of products by the main media conglomerates who are eager
to establish links with major football brands, especially through the purchase of broadcasting rights (Ginesta, 2021).
3. Methodology and corpus
is research takes an initial approach of an exploratory nature to the issue, focusing on the various platforms that hold the
broadcasting rights of the so-called
Liga de Fútbol Profesional
[professional football league], or La Liga. ese platforms
include the ocial website of the football league, as well as Movistar Plus and DAZN. is study has one overall objective, and
two secondary objectives derived from the initial one. Firstly, the authors intend to carry out a comparative analysis of the
summaries available on each platform after the conclusion of the matches. e main objective of this study is to examine the
plays that have undergone referee review during matches, and how each platform addresses this issue in the overall context
of each summary. To this end, an analysis protocol will be used in order to consider both visual and sound elements, whether
diegetic or extradiegetic. Regarding the secondary objectives, the aim is to verify whether each media outlet uses video referee
analysis in diverse ways, either by generating their own content on the subject or by simply incorporating it as another feature
of the game’s narrative. Likewise, a related aim is to establish an initial categorisation of the dierent uses of video refereeing
within the nal narrative of the matches, if possible.
For this research, the decision was made to carry out an analysis of the summaries of the matches of the
Liga de Fútbol
Profesional Española
[Spanish professional football league], in which Real Madrid and FC Barcelona take part, in the period
from 1 January to 30 April of 2024.
e study began in January 2024, which is the month when VAR audios are made public in Spain, provided that a referee has
reviewed them on a monitor. is time period covers a total of 13 league matchdays, which include a direct clash between
the two teams mentioned on the 32nd day. us, among the three platforms mentioned above, a total of 27 matches were
analysed, along with a total of 81 match summaries of the twenty-seven games.
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Table 1. Corpus table
Matchday
Match 1Match 2
Matchday 20FC Barcelona – OsasunaGetafe – Real Madrid
Matchday 21Real Betis Balompié – FC BarcelonaReal Madrid – Almería
Matchday 22FC Barcelona – VillarrealLas Palmas – Real Madrid
Matchday 23Alavés – FC BarcelonaReal Madrid – Atlético
Matchday 24FC Barcelona GranadaReal Madrid – Girona
Matchday 25Celta – FC BarcelonaRayo Vallecano – Real Madrid
Matchday 26FC Barcelona – GetafeReal Madrid – Sevilla FC
Matchday 27Athletic Bilbao – FC BarcelonaValencia – Real Madrid
Matchday 28 FC Barcelona – MallorcaReal Madrid – Celta de Vigo
Matchday 29Atlético de Madrid – FC BarcelonaOsasuna – Real Madrid
Matchday 30FC Barcelona – Las PalmasReal Madrid – Athletic
Matchday 31Cádiz – FC BarcelonaMallorca – Real Madrid
Matchday 32Real Madrid – FC BarcelonaReal Madrid – FC Barcelona
Matchday 33FC Barcelona – ValenciaReal Sociedad – Real Madrid
Source: prepared by the authors
To carry out the analysis, a worksheet was used that includes the key features of the audio-visual production such as the
types of shots, repetition of the replays, use of slow-motion cameras, and the number of shots included in the nal editing.
Regarding sound, both diegetic (e.g. ambient sound or fans) and extradiegetic (e.g. commentators’ narration) were analysed.
e template of the worksheet used in the analysis can be seen below.
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Table 2. Analysis worksheet
Match analysed
Platform
VAR action. Match minute.
Audio-visual production
Type of shot
Repetition
Slow motion
Other eects
One or more of a single shot
Sound features
Diegetic sound
Narrator or narrators
Textual features
Titles. Typography
Overprints.
Other notes
Source: prepared by the authors
4. Results
Some of the main ndings of the analysis of the 27 matches, along with 81 summaries, are outlined below. Again, they were all
taken from the three selected platforms. It is important to note that for this study, only plays in which VAR was directly involved
in one of the three platforms have been analysed. Of the 27 matches examined, 11 do not include any video refereeing in the
summaries of the three platforms. is is a signicant, because plays are sometimes included on one platform, yet not on
others, which will be explained in more detail later.
Given the context, it is striking to see how certain summaries from Movistar and DAZN intentionally omit key plays in some
of the matches. Consequently, viewers who only watch these highlights might receive only a partial view of the match, and
possibly one that is incorrect. Furthermore, these omissions cannot be justied by the short duration of the reports. Although
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they rarely exceed three minutes, there is time enough to avoid omissions. An example can be seen on Matchday 22, during the
game between FC Barcelona and Villarreal. In this case, the summary of La Liga includes both the VAR lines and the disallowed
Villarreal goal, as shown in Image 1.
Image 1. Summary of La Liga’s EA [elite academy]. Matchday 22. FC Barcelona-Villarreal
Source: YouTube, 2024A
e same play is narrated dierently by the Movistar platform, which does not include the oside lines in the goal, although it
does include a replay and a brief, narrated commentary about the goal that was disallowed due to an oside foul, yet there was
no mention of VAR in this case. is stands in contrast to the coverage on DAZN, which does not even include the disallowed
goal in its summary. As a result, there are no goal lines, nor remarks from the commentators on this platform. is same
situation occurs with Raphinha’s disallowed goal on Matchday 30 in the game between FC Barcelona and Las Palmas, which
appears in full in the summary of La Liga, only briey on Movistar, and is omitted on DAZN. On Matchday 27, during the game
between Valencia and Real Madrid, neither DAZN’s nor Movistar’s coverage oered audio or visual explanations related to the
disallowed goal scored by Vinicius. However, the ocial La Liga summary includes a sequence of images that shed light on the
reasons behind this referee’s decision. Firstly, there is a double-screen montage showing an infographic with the oside line
superimposed, together with a shot of the exact moment of the pass. Next, the goal review process is displayed, after which the
situation returns to full screen mode and the referee is seen awarding the goal.
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Image 2 and Image 3. Summary of La Liga’s EA. Matchday 27. Valencia - Real Madrid
Source: YouTube, 2024B
A comparable situation occurs on Matchday 25 in the game between Celta and FC Barcelona, where La Liga once again provides
the most complete summary. Despite the lack of audio support in the form of commentaries, the summary does not overlook
crucial plays during the match. Most notably, a penalty kick by Lewandowski was blocked by the goalkeeper when he stepped
forward, prompting the referee to order a review of the spot-kick using VAR. In this case, the Movistar summary skips the rst
penalty kick, and the situation can only be understood through a brief clarication by the commentators, although there is
no reference to VAR. On the other hand, although the DAZN summary shows both penalty kicks, the situation is not clearly
explained. By contrast, La Liga’s summary includes the chronology of the decisions and adequately summarises the situation.
Regarding specic comments referring to VAR, which are likely to be present in the full live coverage of the matches, a few
examples were found in the summaries analysed, with the visual component being most prevalent. In any case, two clear
examples were found: e rst is Movistar’s summary of the Real Madrid-Sevilla match, which includes the following
comment by the narrator: “Referee Díaz de Mera had conceded the goal, but then the VAR alerted him of the foul”. e second
example involves the summary of the FC Barcelona-Mallorca match on DAZN, in which the following commentary is heard
in connection with the images of the VAR activity: “Now, it appears that referee Iglesias Villanueva is turning to look at the
monitor in order to determine what… (short pause)… It’s a penalty!”
Regarding infographics, this resource is commonly used in the highlights of La Liga whenever VAR is employed. Infographics
not only illustrate oside lines, but they also complement the decisions made by the referee based on the recommendations
of his colleagues in the VAR room.
In 15 of the 16 matches where VAR is used, the summary published by La Liga incorporates specic infographics on the screen
detailing the exact origin of the images, as well as the possible judgement being assessed, along with the nal decision. is
undoubtedly helps the viewer to clearly understand what is happening in real time. By contrast, the use of infographics by
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DAZN or Movistar
is much lower and only occurs on six occasions in similar situations. It should be noted that the omission of
infographics is sometimes compensated by the commentators’ audible remarks, which help the viewer follow and assimilate
the action. However, this is not possible in the ocial summaries provided by La Liga, as there is no audio other than the
ambient sound of the stadium.
Graph 1. e presence of infographics and multi-screens when using
VAR
Source: prepared by the authors
A comparable situation occurs regarding the presence of multi-screens in actions where the VAR monitor is being reviewed
on the playing eld. Of the 15 activities that use infographics, only eight incorporate multi-screens in La Liga’s productions,
while all the VAR actions of the other two operators use multi-screens to visually reinforce the review. To quote Pasolini (2020),
“e power of zoom and slow motion in sports broadcasting is the work of the devil (p. 95)”. is refers to a common strategy
found among DAZN and Movistar, which contrasts with the ocial set-up published by La Liga. Moreover, this issue connects
directly with one of the themes outlined in the theoretical framework. In other words, the development of narrative structures
or dramatic sequences use the VAR review in order to incorporate features that toy with the dramatic strain placed on the
viewer. is is something that is found in most of the VAR reviews of Movistar and DAZN.
A case in point can be found on Matchday 33 in the game between Real Sociedad-Real Madrid. In the DAZN summary
(although Movistar’s approach is very similar), a review is included of the disallowed goal made by San Sebastián player Take
Kubo, whose previous background was in Madrid, which adds a new level of drama to the action. e chronology starts with
the player scoring the goal. e celebration of the goal is included in the summary, which is unusual for disallowed goals in
other summaries. Next, the possible foul is replayed twice, once in a close-up and once in a wide angle shot. e infographic
shows that the goal is under review. Next, we see the referee walking toward the monitor (Image 2), which is the beginning of
the dramatic eect. en, there is a pause, when the referee is seen in front of the screen (Image 3), in multiscreen format. For
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a few seconds, the reviewing activity can be seen, yet the spectator still does not know the nal decision. Finally, the referee
is seen returning to the eld of play when he disallows the goal. e reaction of the San Sebastián players after the decision
is also added. e scene is dramatic, involving three acts. It even incorporates a prologue that lasts a total of twenty seconds,
which is a micro-narrative within the summary that undoubtedly shapes the spectator’s expectations and imbues them with
suspense. According to the researcher Blanco, “is is a dramatic action that is pure theatre, with the added bonus of providing
suspense, along with the enticement of maintaining the viewer’s attention by not letting them know the result until the end of
the test (2009:66)”.
Image 2 and Image 3. DAZN. Matchday 33. Real Sociedad - Real Madrid
Source: YouTube, 2024C
5. Discussion
By analysing the summaries of 27 matches, the ndings reveal signicant discrepancies in the depiction and coverage of VAR
decisions among the three platforms examined, which are La Liga, Movistar, and DAZN. e lack of standardisation in the
inclusion of VAR decisions in summaries can have a signicant impact on the viewer’s perception of the way matches develop,
which is a highlight of this study.
One of the key ndings is the intentional exclusion of certain key actions of the match in the Movistar and DAZN highlights.
Moreover, this type of approach is a problem, as it might limit the viewer’s understanding of the match, and could lead to
a partial or erroneous perception of the game. is is especially evident in the match between FC Barcelona and Villarreal
(Matchday 22), where the summary of La Liga includes both the VAR lines and the disallowed Villarreal goal, while Movistar
does not show the oside lines, and DAZN omits the play altogether.
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is discrepancy in including the VAR decisions is not an isolated event and is repeated on multiple matchdays and games.
For example, on Matchday 30, in the game between FC Barcelona and Las Palmas, the summary of La Liga oers full coverage
of Raphinha’s disallowed goal, while Movistar presents it briey, and DAZN omits it altogether. is pattern is also observed
on Matchday 25 during the game between Celta and FC Barcelona, where again the summary of La Liga provides the most
comprehensive coverage of a decisive VAR-related event.
e use of infographics and multi-screens in VAR reviews also varies considerably among the platforms. La Liga dierentiates
itself through its consistent use of these visual aids, which provide the viewer with a clear and accurate understanding of
referee decisions. By contrast, both Movistar and DAZN use infographics more sporadically and rely more heavily on narrator
commentaries to explain VAR decisions.
is highlights the fact that Movistar and DAZN tend to create a narrative structure that adds an element of dramatic tension
to VAR decisions, something that is less prevalent in La Liga’s summaries. A case in point related to this practice is the review of
Take Kubo’s goal, which was disallowed in the match between Real Sociedad and Real Madrid (Matchday 33). In this case, the
sequence is presented as a micro-narrative that toys with the viewer’s expectations by repeating the possible foul, displaying
the referee’s walk to the monitor, and showing his nal decision.
In summary, the way in which the various platforms present VAR decisions in their summaries not only aects the viewer’s
understanding of the match in question, but also has wider implications for the perception of fairness and transparency in
football. e inconsistent coverage of these essential actions underscores the need for more standardisation and consistency
in the media’s portrayal of refereeing decisions.
6. Conclusions
Given the exploratory nature of this research, the conclusions drawn from the results can be a starting point for future study. It
is important to point out that the ndings presented in this paper not only provide an initial understanding of the phenomena
explored, but also highlight some areas that require deeper and more detailed analysis.
is research has identied several issues that merit particular attention in subsequent research. Firstly, the importance of using
infographics in perceiving and understanding the decisions of referees in sports summaries has been noted, suggesting the
need to further explore how dierent formats and presentation styles might inuence the viewer’s experience. Furthermore, by
comparing dierent media such as DAZN and Movistar in terms of their use of infographics, the road is paved for comparative
studies that specically examine variations in content presentation and its impact on the audience.
In terms of sound, there is a notable lack of commentaries related to the use of VAR. is observation highlights the prevalence
of the visual component in the match summaries. However, it is worth undertaking future research to focus on the role of audio
narration as a key feature in creating suspense in these highlights. is type of research might shed light on how narration and
sound contribute to the spectator’s experience, thereby complementing the visual information provided by VAR, and possibly
enhancing the understanding and enjoyment of sporting events. Exploring these narrative dynamics could oer valuable
insight into sports broadcasting techniques and their impact on audience perception. e narrative sequence observed in the
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goal disallowed to Take Kubo in the Real Sociedad-Real Madrid match exemplies the dramatic structure that can be used
as a theoretical framework for future research on the narratology of live broadcasts, which can also be extrapolated to live
broadcasts themselves. is specic case clearly shows how the inclusion of narrative and visual elements can manipulate
and permeate spectator expectations, suggesting that the analysis of micro-narratives in sporting contexts can be a productive
line of future research.
In summary, the ndings of this study not only establish a solid starting point for future studies, but they also highlight key
areas that merit further investigation. e continuation and expansion of this line of research can signicantly contribute to a
deeper understanding of the dynamics of visual communication in sports media, and its impact on the spectator’s perception.
7. Acknowledgements
is article has been translated into English by Charles E. Arthur, to whom we are grateful for his meticulous work.
8. Specic contributions of each author
Name and surnam
e
Conception and design of the workSergio Cobo Durán and Joaquín Marín-Montín
Methodology
Sergio Cobo Durán and Joaquín Marín-Montín
Data collection and analysisSergio Cobo Durán and Joaquín Marín-Montín
Discussion and conclusionsSergio Cobo Durán and Joaquín Marín-Montín
Drafting, formatting, version review and approvalSergio Cobo Durán and Joaquín Marín-Montín
9. Conict of interest
e authors declare that there is no conict of interest contained in this article.
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