Media Literacy Against Disinformation: An Analysis of 25 Initiatives
Promoted in Spain
Alfabetización mediática contra la desinformación: análisis de 25 iniciativas
promovidas en España
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| 447
July-December of 2025
ISSN: 1696-019X / e-ISSN: 2386-3978
How to cite this article:
Verón, J. J.; Sancho-Ligorred, B. and Pérez-Zapater, B. (2025). Media Literacy Against Disinformation: An Analysis of 25 Initiatives Promoted in
Spain.
Doxa Comunicación
, 41, pp. 447-467.
https://doi.org/10.31921/doxacom.n41a2899
José Juan Verón.
Professor of Specialised Journalism at San Jorge University, where he is the Director of the Bachelor’s
Degree in Journalism. PhD in Journalism and Communication from the Autonomous University of Barcelona. His
research addresses aspects related to political communication and the eects of information on public opinion. In
recent years, his work has centred on phenomena related to disinformation. He has published in indexed journals, as
well as several monographs and numerous chapters in collective volumes. He is part of several research projects and
is a member of Communication, Journalism, Politics, and Citizenship, which is recognised as a reference group by the
Government of Aragon.
San Jorge University, Spain
[email protected]
ORCID:
0000-0003-4406-4762
Belén Sancho-Ligorred
is an Associate Lecturer and Researcher in the Journalism Degree program at the San Jorge
University. She is a PhD candidate in Communication and Journalism at the Autonomous University of Barcelona.
Her doctoral research combines research lines on disinformation driven by hate speech and Media and Information
Literacy. She has published research articles in indexed journals and participated in national conferences. Other areas
of work focus on articial intelligence and its relationship to journalistic practice. She is a member of the research group
Communication, Journalism and Citizenship, recognised as a reference group by the Government of Aragon.
San Jorge University, Spain
[email protected]
ORCID:
0000-0003-2472-1470
Brenda Pérez-Zapater.
Lecturer and researcher at the San Jorge University, with professional experience in journalism,
public relations and marketing. Her research focuses on the entertainment audiovisual sector and the transformation
of the lm industry in response to the rise of streaming platforms. She has worked at media outlets such as Agencia EFE
in London. Other lines of research within her projects include disinformation, articial intelligence and Media and
Information Literacy. She is a member of the research group Culture and Audiovisual Communication, recognised as a
reference group by the Government of Aragon.
San Jorge University, Spain
[email protected]
ORCID:
0000-0002-6551-6660
is content is published under Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial License. International License CC BY-NC 4.0
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1. Introduction
Disinformation emerged as a recognised phenomenon during the Cold War in the 1950s, although its true origins can be
traced back to Antiquity. In recent years, it has become a global challenge that signicantly aects young people, particularly
within the context of multiculturalism and race (UNESCO, 2023).
Several factors have transformed disinformation, which “is not in itself a new phenomenon” (Gelfert, 2018: 93), into one of the
“greatest threats facing humanity” (World Economic Forum, 2024).
A key driver of this trend is the widespread accessibility of specic technologies, which have enabled the creation of high-
quality false information, as well as the ability to disseminate it instantly on a near-limitless scale. At the same time, traditional
intermediaries (media outlets and journalists) have been largely sidelined, while society as a whole has yet to be trained to be
autonomous in its ability to discern information from disinformation.
In this context, certain social groups are especially vulnerable. e European Union and UNESCO have highlighted the
susceptibility of young people (European Commission, 2020) due to their limited experience with media, which is a key factor
hindering their ability to detect deception condently. In line with this, various studies indicate that a lack of media and
critical literacy skills is a signicant contributor to this vulnerability (Livingstone, 2004). However, educational programmes
aimed at prevention are not being adequately implemented.
is research aligns with Anderson’s (2021) perspective, recognising the risks inherent in the current situation, while also
acknowledging the opportunity it oers. Society as a whole is beginning to grasp the importance of communication and with
it, the need for education and research in this area. Anderson advocates for a vision of media culture that is not dependent on
digital platforms but instead embraces a more humanistic perspective.
Recibido: 30/01/2025 - Aceptado: 08/05/2025 - En edición: 16/06/2025 - Publicado: 01/07/2025
Resumen:
La desinformación se ha convertido en un problema social grave en
todo el mundo. Es por ello por lo que organismos públicos y privados
llevan años impulsando iniciativas y proyectos para combatir y contra
-
rrestar su impacto en la sociedad, especialmente entre colectivos vulne
-
rables como los jóvenes y las personas de avanzada edad. Esta investi
-
gación busca, profundiza y compara la diversidad de proyectos que se
han creado en los últimos años desde el ámbito educativo en España.
A partir de una investigación cualitativa de metodología de casos, se
identican las bondades de cada una de las iniciativas y se incide en la
importancia de considerar el ámbito educativo el motor principal para
combatir la desinformación.
Palabras clave:
Desinformación; innovación educativa; noticias falsas; comunicación;
alfabetización mediática e informacional.
Received: 30/01/2025 - Accepted: 08/05/2025 - Early access: 16/06/2025 - Published: 01/07/2025
Abstract:
Disinformation has emerged as a serious global social issue. As a
result, public and private organisations have spent years promoting
initiatives and projects aimed at combating and counteracting
its impact on society, particularly among vulnerable groups such
as young people and older people. is research examines and
compares the wide range of educational projects developed in
Spain in recent years. Using a qualitative, case-based research
methodology, the study identies the benets of each initiative and
emphasises the importance of education as the primary driver in the
ght against disinformation.
Keywords:
Disinformation; educational innovation; fake news; communication;
media literacy.
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erefore, early intervention through media literacy strategies is crucial. is research aims to gather, organise, and characterise
recent media literacy initiatives in Spain, focusing on those launched within the non-formal education sector.
is research builds on a prior, smaller-scale study conducted on a smaller number of initiatives, which served as an exploratory
experience. e development of the earlier study enabled the improvement and adaptation of the analysis system, as well as
a signicant expansion of the sample.
We begin with the premise that media literacy is an eective tool to counter disinformation. Research indicates that such
strategies are particularly eective among adolescents, who are in a phase of identity formation and tend to adopt an active
stance toward social issues when they feel empowered (Zalve, 2022).
2. eoretical Framework
In recent decades, digital literacy has gained traction as an increasingly essential element for active and eective learning
about reality.
In Spain, various educational initiatives have been launched to promote digital literacy among young people, equipping them
with the necessary tools to help them avoid falling victim to disinformation. For example, the project “Conecta Joven” engages
young people in training adults in digital skills, fostering intergenerational digital literacy (González, 2010). Additionally,
programs such as “Alfabetización Digital Hoy” aim to bridge the digital divide, while encouraging a critical and reective
approach to technology use (Vicens Vives, 2021).
ese projects primarily target young people and adolescents from Generation Z, characterised by their intensive use of
mobile phones and Relationship, Information and Communication Technologies (RICTs). According to a UNICEF report,
90.8% of Spanish adolescents go online almost daily, with 31.5% spending more than ve hours a day on the internet during
the week (UNICEF, 2022). is frequent and often unsupervised use can lead to problems in social interaction and increased
exposure to disinformation.
Recent research has underscored the eectiveness of media literacy in equipping young people with the tools to analyse the
content they consume critically (Geers et al., 2020; Wardle & Derakhshan, 2017). Media literacy not only enhances young
people’s critical thinking skills but also bolsters resilience against informational manipulation (Livingstone, 2020). Studies
show that individuals trained in Media and Information Literacy (MIL) are better able to assess the credibility of information,
are less likely to share false information, and are better equipped to make informed judgements about the quality of the
information they encounter (Dame Adjin-Tettey, 2022).
To establish the foundation and starting point of this study, a broad denition and conceptualisation of the term “disinformation”
have been adopted, understood as any form of dissemination of false or inaccurate information that distorts facts, regardless
of the intent behind it.
Some institutions, such as the European Commission, dene disinformation as false or misleading information intended to
deceive, whether for nancial gain or ideological purposes, which can cause public harm (Congress of Deputies, 2023). is
concept also includes more specic terms like “hoax” or “fake news”.
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e impact of disinformation on the population has become a growing concern for both authorities and the academic
community, though their perspectives on the nature of the problem may dier. Various scholars point out that “there is evidence
of the negative eects of using networks to spread erroneous information”, which can result in “harmful consequences for
global health and well-being” (Pulido et al., 2020, p.2). It is also noted that “disinformation negatively aects public health and
safety, erodes democracy, and undermines fundamental rights that cannot be taken for granted and must be safeguarded”
(Congress of Deputies, 2023).
Other scholars have focused on the social and political aspects of disinformation (Benavides Vanegas, 2020; Blanco-Alfonso et
al., 2022). Disinformation is especially harmful during emergencies, such as the COVID-19 health crisis or the jihadist attacks
in Europe. Furthermore, the polarisation fueled or intensied by disinformation on social media contributes to a more tense
social climate, an increase in violence, and undermines democracy and its institutions.
Disinformation follows an incremental logic that begins on anonymous websites before spreading to closed networks,
organised groups, and eventually reaching mainstream social media platforms and traditional media outlets. Apps like
WhatsApp facilitate “the exchange of content, which increases conrmation bias among surveyed adolescents within a trusted
environment that lowers their critical assessment of the reliability of received content” (Herrero-Diez et al., 2020, p.11).
Some studies highlight the growing predominance of the emotional dimension over facts in discourse, noting that “this is
a fundamental issue underlying the resurgence of criticism toward fake news and, consequently, the phenomenon of the
emergence of new journalistic literacy” (Pérez Tornero et al., 2018, p.215).
us, on platforms like Twitter (now X), false content is more likely to be shared than accurate information, even “despite
individual and network factors favouring the truth” (Vosoughi et al., 2018, p.1151). is trend reects a signicant shift, where
society has moved beyond being mere recipients of disinformation to becoming its creators and a crucial vehicle for its spread.
is phenomenon is closely tied to the central role of social media and messaging services, where the perceived credibility of
the source can “lower critical faculties and position the reader” (Pangrazio, 2018, p.11).
In this context, the media have lost much of their inuence as intermediaries between citizens and reality, as evidenced by their
declining credibility and the widespread distrust they face. According to a Eurobarometer published in May 2021, Spanish citizens
exhibit signicantly higher levels of distrust towards their media compared to the EU average (European Commission, 2021).
Despite this climate of distrust, UNESCO asserts that journalism remains “an essential element of our lives” and emphasises
the importance of “strengthening the media” to mitigate the eects of disinformation (UNESCO, 2020). However, studies
such as that of Tsfati et al. (2020, p.158) caution that although the media attempt to correct disinformation, they sometimes
contribute to its dissemination by replicating it.
Consequently, some experts have noted a shift from an informed society to a “society of infoxication or noise” (Tejedor Calvo
et al., 2016, p.135). In the context of information overload, citizens need to develop skills to distinguish between reliable and
unreliable content. Ramírez Corzo argues that humans are incapable of ltering the information encountered daily, leaving
individuals exposed to platforms that have the power to organise content through algorithms tailored to their preferences.
According to the author, it is necessary to protect fundamental rights and prevent false information from continuing to build “a
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culture of post-truth without any limits” (Ramírez Corzo, 2019). In this regard, Bustos and Ruiz (2020) point out that technology
industries should play a more active role in combating this phenomenon.
In this context, Big Data and Articial Intelligence, along with the development of their algorithms, are viewed as opportunities
to address the issue of disinformation, at least in some of its forms, as demonstrated by various initiatives launched across
Europe in recent years (Moreno et al., 2024). However, even these more optimistic views regarding technology’s role consider
it essential to “carry out workshops and educational seminars in schools and universities to highlight the seriousness of
misleading data” (Moreno et al., 2024, 449).
Pérez Tornero et al. (2018) advocate for close collaboration among journalists, researchers, educators, and citizens as a vital
strategy to confront this challenge. While projects promoting media literacy have been launched, the authors point to a lack
of coherence among existing initiatives and consider the absence of a guiding thread a weakness. ey assert that “the eld of
media literacy emerges strongly, but not only as a task for educational institutions, but also for the media themselves, which
must be regulated by political authorities and the dierent social actors” (Pérez Tornero et al., 2018, p.232).
Five years after these reections, it is observed that eective coordination in the eld of media literacy has yet to be
implemented in the Spanish context. Initiatives, primarily targeting young people, have continued to multiply; yet, there has
been no systematic eort to collect or analyse them to assess their impact or reach.
Although young people are not the primary transmitters of false information, they are the most exposed due to the large
amount of time they spend on social networks, one of the main channels through which such content circulates (Figueira &
Santos, 2019). is group is especially vulnerable because, still in the process of forming and socialising, they lack the essential
tools and knowledge to analyse information critically. As a result, various problems stemming from exposure to misleading
content can negatively inuence their personal development. Some studies indicate that students struggle to identify and
navigate hate speech, making them susceptible to the inuence of both social media and traditional media (Izquierdo-Grau,
2019).
Young people, who primarily access information through social networks, show a greater distancing from traditional media.
A survey by Fad reveals that these platforms are the “favourite medium for following current events” among those under 30 in
Spain (Barral et al., 2021, p.19).
is is particularly signicant given recent research conrming how frequently Spanish youth encounter content classied
as disinformation via social networks and instant messaging apps. us, Bernardo et al. (2023, p.34) note that misleading
information “would reach all respondents (93.4%) at least once a month, and two-thirds every week”, highlighting the
widespread nature of this phenomenon.
Consequently, there is a pressing need to consider how this important social group is being prepared to confront the global
phenomenon of disinformation they encounter daily, as well as how essential Media and Information Literacy (MIL) are being
fostered among these new citizens within a context dominated by an overabundance of misleading content.
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erefore, the research sets out the following objectives:
1.
To compile a benchmarking of educational projects aimed at combating disinformation in Spain.
2.
To qualitatively examine the nature and characteristics of each initiative.
3.
To explore future lines of research on educational innovation in response to the disinformation phenomenon.
3. Methodology
e research employs a qualitative methodology through an in-depth and comparative study of initiatives. It adopts a
descriptive, explanatory and exploratory approach, based on a keyword search for educational initiatives aimed at mitigating
the impact of disinformation in Spain.
e keyword search was conducted using a combination of multiple terms: educational initiatives, disinformation, educational
projects, young people, Spain, educational innovation and elderly population. After ltering the results, a total of 25 initiatives
and proposals were identied.
Disinformation has become a signicant social issue, prompting the emergence of numerous initiatives aimed at mitigating its
impact on society. In this context, the study by Tejedor and Sancho-Ligorred (2023) is part of the IVERES project, which focuses
on Identication, Fact-checking, and Response. e democratic state facing the challenge of disinterested disinformation
identied and mapped 50 initiatives focused on content monitoring and verication. is work has been used as a reference
for this research. It is worth noting that the selection of keywords for this study was carried out with meticulous attention to
detail and thoroughness, ensuring alignment with the study’s objectives. Priority was given to initiatives with an educational
or outreach-oriented nature and that remain active today.
Based on the results obtained, each initiative is analysed qualitatively using the categories outlined in Table 1.
Table 1. Qualitative Analysis Categories of the Study
CategorySubcategory
Name
URL
Managing/Implementing Entity
Entities involved in the project
Autonomous Community (or National Scope)
Year of Creation
Editions
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Type
Educational materials for teachers.
Educational materials for young people.
Games.
Training workshops.
Research project.
Others.
Topic
Disinformation.
Media literacy.
Digital literacy.
Social media.
Digital health.
Others.
Objectives of the project
Target audience
Older adults.
Adults.
Teachers.
University / Higher education.
High school / Vocational Education and
Training (VET) programs.
Secondary Education.
Primary education.
Others.
Modality
Online.
Hybrid.
In-person.
Evaluation method
Content structure
Duration
Complementary materials
Source: created by the authors
e analysis categories enable a more in-depth examination of the selected sample, providing a more detailed understanding
of each initiative.
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4. Results
After applying the analysis sheet to each initiative, the authors extracted the following results.
4.1. Organising entities
e sample analysed in this study underscores the need for organisations to develop innovative and educational solutions to
combat disinformation. Drawing on a selection of 25 initiatives, these projects emerge from a variety of sources: foundations
(AulaCheck, Fundación Ibercivis; Surfear la red or Familias conectadas detectando la desinformación, Fundación FAD
Juventud), professional journalism associations and press councils (Desenreda, Infórmate frente a la DEsinformación III,
Mente crítica, Mayores con wi, Prensa sin edad, inFORMADOS); from universities (the University of Zaragoza, the University
of the Basque Country or Nebrija University); media outlets and fact-checking platforms (Desfake, DoCheck!, Que no te timen
con el móvil), private insitutions (Mentes AMI, Detectives contra la desinformación, No me los toques, Fake News: la fábrica
de mentiras) and public institutions (the Catalan Audiovisual Council, the Government of Catalonia or e Spanish Ministry
of Education and Vocational Education and Training (VET) programs).
All the initiatives analysed receive backing from numerous public and private organisations, mainly through funding. Support
comes from universities, regional governments, city councils or foundations such as the Spanish Foundation for Science
and Technology (FECYT). e European Union is also one of the public entities that allocates the most funding to combat
disinformation.
Table 2. Analysed educational projects
Educational projectWeb page / Reference Information
AulaCheckhttps://aulacheck.ibercivis.es/
Desenredahttps://blogsaverroes.juntadeandalucia.es/programasccl/
Desfakehttps://desfake.cat/
EduCAChttps://www.educac.cat/
Learn to check
https://learntocheck.org/
Unidad de Alfabetización Mediática Unizar - APANot available
Surfear la red
https://www.campusfad.org/surfear-la-red/
inFORMADOS
Not available
Cazabuloshttps://www.cazabulos.es/
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#NODESinformación
https://www.educacionfpydeportes.gob.es/dam/jcr:3c54f03c-c0f5-4edd-a2b9-
0e320bba03/-nodesinformaci-n-propuesta-did-ctica.pdf
Qyourself
https://qyourself.eu/
Mayores con wi
https://periodistasandalucia.es/mayores-con-wi-alfabetizacion-mediatica/
Prensa sin edad
https://aprensamalaga.com/prensa-sin-edad/portada#:~:text=Prensa%20Sin%20
Edad%20es%20un,la%20posible%20brecha%20digital%20existente
El laberinto de la información
https://educaixa.org/es/recurso/jugar-laberinto-informacion
Mentes AMI
https://fundacion.atresmedia.com/Mentes-AMI/
Mente Crítica
https://laboratoriodeperiodismo.org/almeria-acerca-el-periodismo-a-las-aulas-de-
secundaria/
Detectives contra la desinformación
https://laboratoriodeperiodismo.org/detectives-contra-la-desinformacion-el-
proyecto-de-un-colegio-de-las-palmas-para-aprender-a-combatir-los-bulos/
No me los toques
https://www3.gobiernodecanarias.org/medusa/edublog/ceiplosgiles/2024/02/25/
no-me-los-toques-proyecto-para-trabajar-la-desinformacion-mediatica-en-el-cole/
Fake News. La fábrica de mentiras
https://espacio.fundaciontelefonica.com/evento/fake-news-la-fabrica-de-
mentiras/?utm_source=espacio&utm_campaign=expofakenews07052023&utm_
medium=boletin
Cazadores de bulos
https://info-veritas.com/cazadores-de-bulos/
Infórmate frente a la desinformación
https://fape.es/la-appa-renueva-su-proyecto-de-alfabetizacion-mediatica-con-la-
diputacion-de-alicante-por-tercera-vez/
WISE-MEhttps://wiseme.eu/
DoCheck!https://docheck.org/
Que no te timen con el móvil
http://estaticos.cibersur.com/cibersur/impe/idi/023038/eset/espana/fundacion/
malditaes/unen/combatir/timos/movil/personas/mayores
Familias conectadas detectando la desinformación
https://www.campusfad.org/curso/https-www-campusfad-org-proyecto-shield-
familias-digitales-detectando-la-desinformacion-y-educando-en-el-pensamiento-
critico/
Source: created by the authors
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4.2. Geographical scope of the initiatives
Most of the initiatives studied operate at a regional level within autonomous communities, such as the Desenreda project
or Mayores con wi in Andalusia, the Unidad de Alfabetización Mediática APA – Unizar in Aragon, Desfake or EduCAC in
Catalonia, and Detectives contra la desinformación in the Canary Islands. Some projects have a provincial reach, such as
Prensa sin edad in Málaga; Infórmate frente a la desinformación III in Alicante. Others are city-based initiatives, like Cazabulos
or Fake News: la fábrica de mentiras, operating in Madrid, Vigo, or Vitoria-Gasteiz.
Some projects, such as Desenreda (Andalusia), are currently being replicated in other autonomous regions of Spain (Aragon).
Other initiatives, such as No me los toques, have been launched simultaneously across more than ten autonomous communities
in Spain, including the Canary Islands, the Basque Country, Cantabria, Castilla-La Mancha, Madrid, the Valencian Community,
Catalonia, Murcia, Andalusia, Castilla y León, and Galicia.
Other initiatives such as AulaCheck, Learn to Check, Surfear la red, #NODESinformación, El laberinto de la información and
Mentes AMI have a national scope (Table 3).
Table 3. Geographic Scope of the Initiatives
Educational projectTarget Audience
AulaCheck
National scope
DesenredaAndalusia
DesfakeCatalonia
EduCACCatalonia
Learn to checkNational scope
Unidad de Alfabetización Mediática Unizar - APA
Aragon
Surfear la redNational scope
inFORMADOS
Castilla y León
Cazabulos
Madrid, Vigo and Vitoria-Gasteiz.
#NODESinformación
National scope
Qyourself
e Basque Country
Mayores con wi
Andalusia
Prensa sin edad
Málaga
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El laberinto de la informaciónNational scope
Mentes AMINational scope
Mente Crítica
Almeria
Detectives contra la desinformaciónLas Palmas
No me los toquesNational scope
Fake News. La fábrica de mentiras
Madrid
Cazadores de bulosNational scope
Infórmate frente a la desinformación
Alicante
WISE-ME
National and European scope
DoCheck!
National and European scope
Que no te timen con el móvil
Madrid
Familias conectadas detectando la desinformaciónNational scope
Source: created by the authors
4.3. emes and Diversity of Approaches
It is no coincidence that most of the initiatives analysed fall within the context of Media and Information Literacy (MIL). MIL is
considered one of the most powerful tools in the ght against disinformation, which is fundamentally rooted in education. For
this reason, many of these educational initiatives focus on empowering citizens by fostering critical thinking.
Some of the analysed initiatives are directly linked to specic elds, including journalism and fake news (Desenreda or
inFORMADOS); science (AulaCheck, #NODESinformación or Cazabulos); fact checking and data verication (Learn to check,
Desfake or Cazadores de bulos) or cybersecurity and online safety (Surfear la red, Mayores con wi or Que no te timen con el
móvil).
Social media plays a crucial role in the disinformation phenomenon. erefore, many of these initiatives, both from theoretical
and practical perspectives, address the relationship between social media and disinformation, as well as how to use these
platforms responsibly. For instance, AulaCheck or Cazabulos oer students the opportunity to act as fact-checkers by
debunking scientic hoaxes found on social media platforms.
Teachers play a crucial role in addressing disinformation, as they are the primary educators working with young people.
Several of the initiatives analysed oer training tools and educational materials for teachers, such as Desfake or Qyourself.
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Among the initiatives, Learn to Check stands out for its focus on the critical importance of ltering and verifying information
received via social networks to avoid falling into disinformation traps. is initiative has also promoted educational projects in
Spain to combat the phenomenon, such as Detectives contra la desinformación and No me los toques.
While many of the analysed projects target young people, there are also initiatives dedicated to protecting older adults, another
group vulnerable to disinformation. Programmes like Mayores con wi or Qué no te timen con el móvil seek to empower older
adults by helping them develop stronger critical skills to navigate emerging technologies.
Most of the results focus on training workshops or other hands-on approaches to addressing the issue. However, some projects
such as Qyourself, WISE-ME, and DoCheck!- aim for a European reach and tackle the problem from a more global perspective,
oering potential solutions or tools to combat the disinformation phenomenon.
4.4. Common objectives of the analysed projects
So far, we have observed that while the various projects and initiatives vary in approach and methodology, they share a common
goal: to enhance citizens’ critical capacity to evaluate information and avoid falling prey to disinformation. By empowering the
public, these initiatives promote Media and Information Literacy (MIL) to combat the spread of false information and hoaxes
circulating online and on social media. Examples include, inFORMADOS, Surfear la red, Qyourself, Cazadores de bulos or
DoCheck!
EduCAC aims to promote media literacy in formal and informal educational settings by enhancing knowledge of audiovisual
language and fostering skills for the eective use of media. Other initiatives, such as Learn to Check or Desfake, also aim to
train students to be critical and learn basic rules for fact-checking.
e introduction of Media and Information Literacy (MIL) into the Spanish educational curriculum remains an unresolved
issue. Over the years, experts have emphasised the importance of incorporating MIL training from an early age to combat the
disinformation phenomenon. In this regard, #NODESinformación and the APA-Unizar media literacy unit aim to provide
educational and training alternatives designed to be incorporated transversally across subjects in the curriculum.
As previously highlighted, in the absence of a specic subject in the educational curriculum, workshops and educational talks
have emerged as an alternative means of equipping young people with essential media skills. ese initiatives aim to help
students understand how media and social networks function. ey are among the most numerous, taking place in various
provinces of Spain, for example, Desenreda, Desfake, Mente Crítica, and Infórmate frente a la desinformación III.
Beyond workshops and talks, other engaging methods to reach young people and help them acquire knowledge include games
(El laberinto de la información), educational videos featuring inuencers (Mentes AMI), and educational activities where
participants take on the role of “journalists for a day” (Aula Check). ese types of projects are innovative and aim to make
media literacy more appealing to teenagers.
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4.5. Target Audience
As observed throughout this research, the initiatives analysed target a wide range of audiences, including students at various
educational levels, families, teachers, and older adults. In this regard, it is essential to highlight the format of some of these
projects, which oer educational resources through their platforms, making them accessible to diverse audiences regardless
of geographic location: Examples include Learn to Check, EduCAC, Aula Check, Surfear la red, El Laberinto de la información,
Cazabulos or Desfake. However, other projects such as Desenreda, Mayores con Wi, Prensa sin edad, Mente crítica or
Infórmate sobre la desinformación III stand out for their in-person delivery.
When analysing the target audiences of each initiative more specically, three main groups are identied: teachers, students,
and older adults (Table 4).
Table 4. Target audience
Educational ProjectTarget Audience
AulaCheck
Teachers of the second cycle of Secondary Education (3rd and 4th year) and
1st year of Baccalaureate.
Desenreda
Students in the second cycle of Secondary Education (3rd and 4th year).
Desfake
Students in the second cycle of Secondary Education (3rd and 4th year),
teachers (online), in-person workshops for Baccalaureate and Vocational
Education and Training (VET) programs in the Barcelona Metropolitan Area.
EduCAC
Families and schools.
Learn to Check
Teachers and students across Primary and Secondary Education,
Baccalaureate and University, along with older adults.
Unidad de Alfabetización Mediática Unizar - APATeachers of the 3rd year of Secondary Education.
Surfear la redStudents in Primary and Secondary education, teachers and families.
inFORMADOS
Students in the second cycle of Secondary Education (3rd and 4th year).
Cazabulos
Teachers of the rst cycle of Secondary Education (1st and 2nd year).
#NODESinformación
Primary and Secondary Education teachers.
Qyourself
Teachers at multiple stages of the educational system.
Mayores con wiOlder adults.
Prensa sin edadOlder adults.
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El laberinto de la informaciónStudents aged 8 to 12, along with teachers and families.
Mentes AMISecondary Education students.
Mente CríticaSecondary Education students (4th year).
Detectives contra la desinformaciónPrimary Education students (6th year).
No me los toquesPrimary and Secondary Education students and teachers.
Fake News. La fábrica de mentirasFamilies and schools.
Cazadores de bulosUniversity students.
Infórmate frente a la desinformaciónStudents in the second cycle of Secondary Education (3rd and 4th year).
WISE-ME
Students in Primary and Secondary Education, Baccalaureate and Vocational
Education and Training (VET) programs.
DoCheck!
Secondary and Baccalaureate students, families and teachers.
Que no te timen con el móvilOlder adults.
Familias conectadas detectando la desinformación
Families.
Source: created by the authors
Another target audience not previously mentioned is families. Given the fundamental role families play in the education of
young people, several initiatives are also aimed at them to provide resources to support the development of critical thinking
skills in young people.
4.6. Methodology, content and tools
Most of the initiatives analysed employ workshops and training sessions, both in-person and online, as their primary
methodological approach. Furthermore, as previously highlighted, some of this content is hosted on digital platforms,
providing materials to diverse audiences through various digital resources, such as videos, interactive games, infographics,
and other multimedia formats.
e initiative AulaCheck supplies didactic materials designed to support teachers in developing classroom activities. It also
oers personalised teacher support via Telegram and provides feedback on content uploaded by educational centres to its
platform. Similarly, Desfake provides free classroom resources, with the option to access additional materials through a
subscription plan.
Familias Conectadas Detectando la Desinformación is a three-hour, entirely free training programme aimed at families seeking
to help their children combat the phenomenon of disinformation. Learn to Check also oers online training workshops and
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didactic guides to ensure accessibility across audiences; similarly, EduCAC hosts content and resources on its platform to
educate families about audiovisual consumption and the internet.
Surfear la red features a virtual classroom with videos and interactive games suitable for children under 12 and those over 12.
Notably, it includes the interactive game Interland, which helps children learn to navigate digital tools safely and securely.
e methodology of in-person workshops emphasises active student participation. ese include student-focused projects,
such as
inFORMADOS
and Desenreda, as well as initiatives geared toward older adults, notably
Prensa sin edad
and
Mayores
con wi
. e latter consists of ten training sessions based on a didactic manual developed by the Colegio Profesional de
Periodistas de Andalucía (CPPA), specically designed to promote media and digital literacy among older people. In general,
these initiatives combine practical topics related to current events with playful, dynamic activities to facilitate learning.
Finally, research-based projects aim to create open educational resources with a practical and reective approach to combating
disinformation, enabling students to develop critical thinking skills (Qyourself, DoCheck! and WISE-ME).
4.7. Projects led by journalists
Journalists play a fundamental role in addressing the phenomenon of disinformation; therefore, it is not surprising that these
professionals are actively involved in educational initiatives, delivering training workshops for both young people and older
adults. eir participation is directly linked to key topics related to the phenomenon, including disinformation, fake news,
information sources, social networks, and hoaxes. Journalists provide a practical and up-to-date perspective on navigating
information in an era of emerging technologies.
Projects such as Desenreda, Mente Crítica, or Infórmate frente a la Desinformación III are also examples promoted by journalist
associations, which aim to teach students how to distinguish accurate information from disinformation. e projects Mayores
con wi and Prensa sin Edad are also led by journalists who seek to protect older adults from disinformation by empowering
them with tips and strategies to identify hoaxes.
4.8. Complementary Activities
Innovation is a core principle underlying the initiatives analysed, which is reected in the inclusion of various materials and
activities within a single project. Some initiatives incorporate contests as part of their programme before concluding their
activities, such as Aula Check, Mentes AMI, Cazabulos, EduCAC or Cazadores de bulos.
Another way to foster critical thinking skills in society is through cultural initiatives. Fake News: La Fábrica de Mentiras was
an exhibition held in Madrid in 2024 that explored disinformation through an immersive experience designed for the whole
family.
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5. Discussion and Conclusions
is research presents a comprehensive analysis of the phenomenon of disinformation in Spain through a detailed examination
of 25 initiatives launched by various public and private organisations. is study successfully addresses its initial objectives.
Firstly, a wide variety of projects and initiatives aimed at mitigating the eects of disinformation have been identied and
classied. ese proposals range from educational programmes targeting students at dierent school levels to workshops for
professionals and awareness campaigns, all intended to tackle this phenomenon from multiple perspectives. e selected
initiatives provide a broad and representative overview of the collective eorts underway in Spain to diminish the eects of
false or manipulated information.
Secondly, the contents, methodologies and target audiences of these initiatives have been analysed, enabling a critical
evaluation of their strengths, weaknesses and opportunities for improvement to combat disinformation eectively, especially
among the most vulnerable groups. At the same time, common trends, shared weaknesses, and replicable best practices have
been identied, contributing to a better understanding of the current state of Media and Information Literacy (MIL) in Spain.
A notable nding is the recent increase in initiatives promoted by both public institutions and private entities. Most aim to
reduce the eects of disinformation through educational programmes, leading to the conclusion that education is viewed
as a key transformative tool in tackling this issue. is also highlights the urgent need to incorporate MIL transversally and
structurally into curricula from the earliest stages of schooling. is nding aligns with European frameworks advocating
for MIL integration into educational systems, as well as with the views of Figueira and Santos (2019), who emphasise the
importance of equipping young people with tools to detect and critically analyse information.
e training and content implementation designed to detect and combat disinformation, and to develop the skills and
competencies necessary for navigating today’s media environment, producing content, and critically assessing the information
received, should be delivered through innovative and participatory formats. is conclusion is consistent with previous studies,
such as those by Tejedor Calvo et al. (2016). ese methodologies must also empower teachers, enabling them to address this
challenge beyond isolated or secondary subjects, treating it instead as a central pillar of students’ education. In this respect,
most initiatives align with the humanistic approach to fostering critical thinking proposed by Anderson (2021).
However, despite the growth in initiatives and the considerable eorts by public and private entities, the analysis reveals
recurring limitations. ese include a lack of continuity, insucient interinstitutional collaboration, and poor adaptability to
more specic social contexts, as previously criticised by authors such as Pérez Tornero et al. (2018).
Although all initiatives are undoubtedly well-intentioned, many suer from incomplete content and fail to continue
beyond their initial funding or implementation phase. ese shortcomings inevitably undermine the long-term impact and
eectiveness of the human and nancial resources invested in their creation.
Moreover, most proposals target young people, leaving a signicant gap in training programmes for older adults and those
with limited access to technology or educational resources, groups particularly vulnerable to disinformation campaigns. is
highlights the need to diversify media literacy programmes to encompass all age groups and social contexts.
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e study also reveals a balanced national distribution of initiatives, with some extending to the European level. However,
specic communities, such as Andalusia, Aragon, and Catalonia, are investing greater eorts and resources in combating
disinformation through educational programmes and training workshops. is dierentiated approach reects a strong
regional commitment to media literacy, but also highlights the need to expand such eorts to the underrepresented areas to
ensure equitable and eective coverage across Spain.
Ultimately, the study concludes that existing legislation falls short of eectively addressing the challenge of disinformation.
Without mandatory, well-structured implementation across Spanish schools and institutions, as well as in resource centres
serving older adults and those at risk of digital exclusion, anti-disinformation initiatives will remain well-intentioned but
ultimately inadequate. is analysis, therefore, underscores the need for political and social commitment to institutionalise
media literacy as a national educational priority. It also highlights the urgency of fostering long-term collaboration between
public and private organisations to develop comprehensive programmes that empower citizens with the critical skills to
confront the harmful eects of disinformation.
We align with scholars such as Dame Adjin-Tettey (2022), who argue that integrating Media and Information Literacy (MIL)
into ocial educational curricula at all levels is both necessary and urgent. Moreover, this integration should be dynamic,
given the ever-evolving nature of the phenomenon.
Another essential advantage of MIL is its potential to reduce reliance on complex and restrictive legislation, a concern raised
by Magallón Rosa (2019), which carries the risk of enabling censorship and undermining freedom of expression.
is analysis serves as a starting point for reection and scientic advancement on one of the most pressing issues of our time:
the need to equip citizens with the tools to critically interpret information in an increasingly complex digital environment. In
this regard, beyond the qualitative and descriptive analysis conducted, future research should consider mixed or quantitative
methodologies to measure the extent to which students’ media and information competencies improve after participating in
such programmes. It would be equally valuable to explore the perceptions of direct beneciaries of these initiatives, such as
students, teachers, and older adults, to assess their ability to apply what they have learned in their daily lives. Furthermore, this
opens new avenues for exploring the role of media and digital platforms in collaborating with these educational initiatives and
for examining the development of public policies that ensure their long-term funding and sustainability.
6. Acknowledgements
is article has been translated into English by Sophie Phillips, to whom we express our gratitude for her work.
is work has been partially funded by the Department of Employment, Science, and Universities of the Government of
Aragon, within the framework of the Research Group on Communication, Journalism, Politics and Citizenship (SO3_23R).
It originates within the Desenreda project, promoted by the Professional Association of Journalists of Aragon/Association of
Journalists of Aragon.
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7. Specic contributions of each author
Name and Surnam
e
Conception and design of the work
Belén Sancho-Ligorred, José Juan Verón Lassa and
Brenda Pérez-Zapater
Methodology
José Juan Verón Lassa and Belén Sancho-Ligorred
Data collection and analysisBelén Sancho-Ligorred
Discussion and conclusionsBrenda Pérez-Zapater
Drafting, formatting, version review and approvalJosé Juan Verón Lassa
8. Conict of interest
e authors declare that there is no conict of interest contained in this article.
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