Vulnerable groups and disinformation. An analysis of the Andalusian reality
Colectivos vulnerables y desinformación. Análisis de la realidad andaluza
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nº 41, pp. 369-393
| 369
July-December of 2025
ISSN: 1696-019X / e-ISSN: 2386-3978
How to cite this article:
Montiel Torres, M. F.; Teruel Rodríguez, L.; García-Faroldi, L. and Marcos Martín, F. (2025). Vulnerable groups and disinformation. An analysis
of the Andalusian reality.
Doxa Comunicación
, 41, pp. 369-393.
https://doi.org/10.31921/doxacom.n41a2902
María Francisca Montiel Torres.
PhD candidate in Education and Communication at the University of Málaga. Her
thesis research focuses on data journalism, disinformation and its impact on citizens, and fact-checking initiatives based
on their sex/gender dimensions. She is a graduate in Science (Mathematics) from the University of Málaga. She has
completed doctoral courses with research prociency in the Information and Communications Technology program, as
well as specialised courses in High-Level Languages and Computer Programming. She holds the Certicate of Teaching
Aptitude (CAP) and qualied in Primary Education at the University of Málaga.
Universidad de Málaga, Spain
[email protected]
ORCID:
0009-0004-8486-1947
Laura Teruel Rodríguez.
Senior Lecturer in Journalism in the Department of Journalism at the University of Málaga. She
is currently Vice-Dean of Students, Mobility, Equality, and Well-being at the Faculty of Communication Sciences. She
has participated in six competitive national research projects and two European COST initiatives, around which she has
focused her academic work. She is currently the Principal Investigator of the Excellence Project “Impact of disinformation
in Andalusia: cross-sectional analysis of audiences, and journalistic routines and agendas. DisinfoAND” (ProyExcel_00143,
PAIDI 2020) together with Livia García Faroldi. Based on that project, they edited the book “
e media faced with
disinformation: articial intelligence, hate speech, conspiracy theories, and fact-checking
.” She also recently coordinated the
collective monograph “
Disinformation and political communication: An Ibero-American vision in a new technological era
”
at Tirant Lo Blanch. Her areas of research include political journalism, disinformation, polarisation, and social media. She
is a regular participant in programs on political and social analysis on several national, regional, and local media outlets.
.
Universidad de Málaga, Spain
[email protected]
ORCID:
0000-0002-7575-8401
Este contenido se publica bajo licencia Creative Commons Reconocimiento - Licencia no comercial. Licencia internacional CC BY-NC 4.0
Livia García-Faroldi.
Senior Lecturer in Sociology at the University of Málaga. Her research focuses on public opinion,
using both national and international surveys. She has studied support for the European integration process, how that
support interacts with dierent political identities, and how anti-European discourse is linked to xenophobia. Her most
recent lines of research analyse the digital divide in political participation, as well as public opinion regarding fake news
and the spread of disinformation among citizens. She directs, together with Laura Teruel, the Excellence Project “Impact
of disinformation in Andalusia: cross-sectional analysis of audiences and journalistic routines and agendas. DisinfoAND”
(ProyExcel_00143, PAIDI 2020).
Universidad de Málaga, Spain
lgarcí
[email protected]
ORCID:
0000-0001-7816-7562
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Vulnerable groups and disinformation. An analysis of the Andalusian reality
ISSN: 1696-019X / e-ISSN: 2386-3978
doxa.comunicación
Recibido: 31/01/2025 - Aceptado: 28/05/2025 - En edición: 14/06/2025 - Publicado: 01/07/2025
Resumen:
Este artículo analiza la vulnerabilidad frente a la desinformación en
Andalucía, atendiendo a factores sociodemográcos (sexo, edad, nivel
educativo e ingresos) y patrones de consumo informativo, a partir de
una encuesta realizada en 2023 (1.550 participantes). Los resultados
destacan la inuencia de edad, nivel educativo e ingresos en la percep
-
ción de desinformación. Los jóvenes (15-24 años) reconocen más di
-
cultades para identicarla, mientras los mayores de 75 años muestran
mayor conanza. Las mujeres maniestan mayor habilidad en su de
-
tección que los hombres. En términos de consumo informativo, los jóve
-
nes acuden mayoritariamente a redes sociales (92%), mientras que los
mayores preeren televisión y, en menor medida, prensa en papel. Aun
-
que las redes sociales son vistas como principales generadoras de des
-
información (80%), incluso por quienes más la consumen, los medios
tradicionales también son señalados como responsables (60%). La pre
-
ferencia de la televisión en Andalucía arroja un dato signicativamente
mayor que en España. El estudio resalta la importancia del consumo de
prensa en papel frente a prensa digital en la lucha contra la desinforma
-
ción, subrayando su capacidad para generar conanza y minimizar el
impacto de los desórdenes informativos, y concluye en la necesidad de
alfabetización mediática para hacer frente a los mismos.
Palabras clave:
Desinformación; colectivos vulnerables; variables sociodemográcas;
Andalucía; alfabetización mediática.
Received: 31/01/2025 - Accepted: 28/05/2025 - Early access: 14/06/2025 - Published: 01/07/2025
Abstract:
is paper analyses vulnerability to disinformation in Andalusia,
Spain, considering sociodemographic factors (sex, age, educational
level, and income) and news consumption patterns, based on a
survey conducted in 2023 (1,550 participants). e results highlight
the inuence of age, educational level, and income on the perception
of disinformation. Young people (15-24 years old) admit to greater
diculty identifying it, while the over-75s show greater condence.
Women claim greater skill in detecting it than men do. Regarding
news consumption, the young predominantly turn to social media
(92%), while older people prefer television and, to a lesser degree,
print media. Although social media are seen as the main generators
of disinformation (80%), even by those who most consume them,
traditional media are also seen as bearing responsibility (60%). e
preference for television in Andalusia is signicantly higher than the
national average. e study highlights the importance of print versus
digital media consumption in the ght against disinformation,
emphasizing its ability to build trust and minimize the impact of
information disorders. e study concludes that media literacy is
essential to address these issues.
Keywords:
Disinformation; vulnerable groups; sociodemographic variables;
Andalusia; media literacy.
Francisco Marcos Martín.
Professor in the Department of Journalism at the University of Málaga. He holds a PhD in
Communication and a degree in Journalism. He has completed a master’s degree and two postgraduate degrees in
Communication and Audiovisual Education. He has participated in 21 research projects, including 8 funded by national
R&D programs and 14 within the Erasmus+ framework. Principle among these projects are DESINFOPER and DesinfoAND,
which focus on disinformation, as well as European initiatives on the digital inclusion of older adults. His research focuses
on media literacy, disinformation, and articial intelligence in the context of educational communication.
Universidad de Málaga, Spain
[email protected]
ORCID:
0000-0003-3501-2442
1. Introduction
Disinformation is a complex and multifaceted phenomenon characterised by the intentional dissemination of false or mis
-
leading information, with the aim of causing harm or manipulating public opinion. Disinformation frequently nds itself a
space in electoral contexts, health and economic crises, and geopolitical conicts (Iosidis, 2024; Kutuza & Telpis, 2023; Vacca
-
ri, Chadwick & Kaiser, 2022). Disinformation is not uniform but depends on country-specic factors (Humprecht et al., 2021).
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Social media has helped amplify the reach and increase the swiftness of the dissemination of fake news (Corcoran et al., 2019;
Serrano Puche, 2018), thus posing an immeasurable challenge.
It is crucial in countering the problems associated with disinformation to detect and prevent it by implementing Big Data and
articial intelligence systems in an ethical and coordinated manner (Moreno Espinosa et al., 2024). Moreover, it is imperative
that citizens be educated, especially the most vulnerable communities, that media independence be promoted, and that reg
-
ulatory frameworks be implemented (Iosidis, 2024; Prasojo et al., 2024; Shah et al., 2023). erefore, this study aims to take a
closer look at those groups most vulnerable to information disorders in a specic setting: Andalusia, an Autonomous Region
located in southern Spain.
is study follows Wardle and Derakhshan’s (2017) conceptual framework of information disorders as it helps to understand
the diverse, complex ways in which information can be distorted, intentionally or not, and, therefore, the need to address it
from multiple combined perspectives, including the technological, educational and regulatory. Similarly to disinformation,
the concept of a “vulnerable social group” is multifaceted and involves various aspects, with social, economic and political
dimensions among them. Vulnerable groups often stand out for their greater exposure to risks and the need for special pro
-
tection due to numerous factors, such as age, gender, economic situation, health or marginalisation (Panchenko, 2024). ese
groups often include socio-economically disadvantaged people, ethnic minorities, women, children, the elderly, people with
low educational attainment, and people with disabilities or chronic illnesses (Havrylenko & Renov, 2023). Furthermore, the
intersectionality of traits such as race, gender, and age exacerbates vulnerability, as these factors, when coinciding, aggravate
the challenges faced by the members of these groups (Garrido, 2022).
e condition of social vulnerability encompasses both the potential for harm and a lack of resilience, and emphasizes the
need to empower and recognise the strengths of those groups. Addressing the needs of disadvantaged communities requires
taking the dynamic nature of vulnerability into account and the specic contexts in which these individuals coexist, ensur
-
ing that policies and protections are adapted to meet emerging risks and challenges (Havrylenko & Renov, 2023; Panchenko,
2024). e media plays a vital role in this context, as it can both amplify vulnerability by spreading disinformation and con
-
tribute to the empowerment of such communities by providing the necessary tools to confront the risks which information
disorders pose.
1.1. Vulnerability factors in the presence of disinformation
Not among the groups vulnerable to disinformation, according to European statistical sources, are those with a better social
position: men, the more highly-educated, executives, and the upper-middle class, proles that are more condent in their
ability to detect fake news (García Faroldi & Blanco Castilla, 2023). A study by Reuter et al. in Germany nds no signicant
dierences by sex but does point to age and education. at study concludes that young and relatively highly-educated people
are better informed and aware of fake news due to their more frequent and dierentiated use of the internet (Reuter et al.,
2019). Regarding interaction with fake news, Buchanan (2020) conrms that people with lower educational levels are more
likely to share hoaxes, while people with higher academic qualications only do so accidentally.
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A study carried out by Pan et al. (2021) on the determining factors in the acceptance of disinformation in the healthcare eld
concluded that educational attainment levels are related to belief in false information or hoaxes, with university-educated in
-
dividuals being more condent of detecting them (Beauvais, 2022; Martínez-Costa et al., 2022). ere is, therefore, a consensus
that educational level is the most eective barrier against information disorders.
Similarly, a study analysing adolescents’ critical thinking skills when faced with scientic information from social media
showed that the level of perceived credibility decreases signicantly as reading comprehension increases (Castells, 2022).
Furthermore, higher argumentative quality was observed in students who opposed or did not believe fake news theses, com
-
pared to those who agreed with and accepted them. ose results underscore the need to strengthen media literacy in a digital
environment increasingly permeated by disinformation.
e proliferation of fake news is not only a technological issue, but also a socio-cultural one. Vulnerable populations, including
those living in poverty, are particularly susceptible to disinformation narratives due to limited opportunities to acquire media
literacy skills (Arrieta-Castillo, 2023; Rubin, 2019). Gelado-Marcos et al. (2022), analysing the socio-economic prole of vul
-
nerable groups in Spain, observe a steady increase in vulnerability to disinformation among lower income groups.
e results of a study by Arin et al. (2023) in the United Kingdom and Germany show that high-income and older respondents
are better able to detect fake news in both countries. Furthermore, they conclude that older, higher-income, and politically
left-of-centre men are better at detecting fake news.
Furthermore, research by Tyshchenko and Muzhanova (2022) points out that information disorders are deliberately created
for economic or political gain, which can disproportionately aect vulnerable populations, including those living in poverty.
ose groups may lack access to reliable sources of information, making them more susceptible to manipulation.
As Arrieta-Castillo (2023) asserts, the spread of disinformation can exacerbate existing inequalities by manipulating percep
-
tions and reinforcing stereotypes against marginalized social groups. erefore, in order to cushion the impact of fake news
on impoverished communities, technological solutions are called for, along with implementation of educational action, and
the putting in place of policies to empower those communities with the skills and resources necessary to navigate the complex
information ecosystem (Broda & Strömbäck, 2024; Călin et al., 2024).
Regarding sex, in the context of research analysing perceptions of the eects of disinformation, both men and women perceive
the diculty of identifying fake news similarly. However, dierences between the sexes are identied in relation to the subject
matter of the disinformation received: a greater proportion of men receive fake news related to political issues, while women
more frequently receive them about celebrities (Montiel, 2024). In the factorial binomial of sex and ideology, behaviour in the
face of disinformation varies; men are more directly inuenced by their partisan identication, while women are indirectly
inuenced by heterophily in a more restricted social network (Turel, 2023).
Some studies along similar lines agree that sex is a variable that marks subtle dierences. It has been found that women are
more cautious when transmitting content of doubtful veracity (Rodríguez-Virgili, Serrano-Puche & Fernández, 2021) and that
they express greater concern about the social consequences of information disorders (Almenar et al., 2021).
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1.2. e inuence of age
Apart from academic background, income, and sex, age is another factor that inuences vulnerability to disinformation. Stud
-
ies such as that by Papapicco et al. (2022) suggest that many adolescents display a perception of “invulnerability to disinfor
-
mation”, an attitude that exacerbates the problem of disinformation facing that age group. Although they are aware of the exist
-
ence of fake news, Spanish adolescents are not always able to recognize or remember it, which adds to their credulity toward
such content (Herrero-Curiel & La Rosa, 2022). Herrero-Diz et al. (2020) conrm that young people are more likely to share
content that connects with their interests, regardless of its veracity. Furthermore, they emphasize that the fact that a story is
newsworthy increases the likelihood that it will be shared among young people, regardless of its veracity.
Reneses Botija, Riberas-Gutiérrez, and Bueno-Guerra (2024) state that young people, although recognizing the trustworthi
-
ness of traditional media, prefer to inform themselves through social media, thus increasing the risk of exposure to and dis
-
semination of fake news, especially hate speech. However, as Galarza-Molina (2023) points out, although young university
students prefer social media over traditional media, they are aware of the greater prevalence of disinformation in the former.
Likewise, to reduce vulnerability to belief in fake news, Faragó et al. (2024) pointed out that cognitive factors, such as analytical
thinking and parental education, are decisive in dealing with the phenomenon.
In the context of teens and their interaction with disinformation, various studies have oered complementary perspectives on
how they approach and perceive it. A study by Selnes (2024) shows that, despite research suggesting that adolescents have a
weak attachment to traditional media, Norwegian adolescents turn to mainstream media to verify and corroborate the news.
at nding challenges the initial assumption that fake news has purely negative eects, since, according to this study, infor
-
mation of that type can foster constructive discussions about content found on social media. In fact, Selnes’s work concludes
that fake news can increase adolescents’ interest in news produced by journalists, prompting them to move from social media
to mainstream media to check facts, something benecial for journalism.
According to the
1st Study on Disinformation in Spain
, carried out in 2022 by Uteca and the University of Navarra, another age
group considered to be vulnerable in both social and media terms are older people. Older adults believe that the young are
more likely to be deceived, while young people think the opposite: that it is older people who are most at risk (p. 9). Calvo et al.
(2022) have observed that older audiences claim they are more aware of the risks associated with disinformation than younger
people are, probably due to their longer exposure to the media and past historical contexts in which disinformation played
an important role. Older people have greater diculty detecting disinformation due to their lower level of digital literacy, a
circumstance that makes them easy prey for manipulation and attacks by cybercriminals (Huguet et al., 2024).
Likewise, the overlapping of factors such as age and political ideology inuences permeability to disinformation. Older adults
and conservative thinkers, for example, are more likely to encounter and share disinformation, in part due to fake news bias
and ideological congruence (Brashier, 2024; Sultan et al., 2024).
Studies indicate that older adults struggle to identify disinformation, but that they can improve their detection skills through
targeted media literacy programs. Sádaba, Salaverría, and Bringué-Sala (2023) demonstrated the eectiveness of a training
program via the social media platform WhatsApp in increasing their ability to detect fake news, highlighting the need to in
-
clude the group in educational communication initiatives.
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Despite the common perception that older adults are especially vulnerable, research such as that by Vivion et al. (2024) shows
that older adults are not passive when faced with disinformation. e older participants in the study employed active strategies
to manage information overload and assess the trustworthiness of news. at result challenges narratives that portray older
adults as victims of disinformation.
e context described above shows that it is essential to analyse disinformation at regional levels for an understanding of how
social, economic, and demographic factors have an impact on communities’ vulnerability to information disorders. In the case
of Andalusia, the region considered in this research, several studies have highlighted the particularities of the phenomenon in
the region. Research such as that conducted by Gualda et al. (2019) and Gómez-Calderón et al. (2020) oers insight into how
conspiracy theories and fake news aect young Andalusians, identifying specic sociological factors that inuence their expo
-
sure to and belief in such content. Similarly, the Andalusian Audiovisual Barometer (Andalusian Audiovisual Council, 2021)
underlines the prevalence of fake news among the local population, as well as the lack of fact-checking habits. However, the
vast majority claim not to generate or disseminate news they recognize as false, even though they may do so out of ignorance.
is regional overview brings to light the importance of studying those factors that make certain groups more vulnerable
to disinformation, particularly in a context like Andalusia, where socio-economic diversity and disparities in education and
digital literacy may exacerbate its eects. erefore, the main objectives of this paper are to dene those groups vulnerable
to disinformation in Andalusia based on their socio-demographic variables and news consumption. It should be noted that,
given the large and heterogeneous population of older adults, this study distinguishes between those aged 60 to 74 and those
over that age, in order to analyse whether their levels of vulnerability dier. is approach aims to minimize discrimination by
omission and recognize the intrinsic heterogeneity of older adults, thereby not overlooking key dierences within the group.
e following research questions have been dened from the review:
1.
What socio-demographic variables (age, education level, income, sex) are associated with greater vulnerability to disinfor
-
mation in Andalusia?
2.
What news consumption patterns are observed among the groups most vulnerable to disinformation?
3.
Are there any dierences in the perception of the role of traditional and social media in generating disinformation accord
-
ing to socio-demographic proles or news consumption habits?
4.
Are there any signicant dierences in the response to disinformation based on socio-demographic variables or news
consumption habits?
2. Methodology
e primary data source of this study is the survey carried out within the project
Impact of disinformation in Andalusia:
Cross-sectional analysis of audiences and journalistic routines and agendas (DesinfoAND)
.
e survey was conducted by a
professional polling company, Cotesa, in December 2023, and is representative of the Andalusian population aged 15 years
and over. 1,250 online surveys were conducted for the entire sample and 300 were conducted by telephone for the population
aged 60 and over. e sample was stratied by household size, and sex and age quotas were established, using data from the
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Municipal Register (2021) for age and sex groups, with the Population Census (2021) utilised for the size of the municipality.
e sampling error for a 95.5% condence level is ±2.55% for the entire sample, assuming simple random sampling.
e survey was designed using several questions previously validated in both international (European Commission Euroba
-
rometer) and national (Centre for Sociological Research (CIS)) surveys. A pilot study was conducted with twenty individuals
from diverse socio-demographic proles to test its validity. e sample was drawn from a panel of over 9,000 people from the
polling company, with 300 people aged 60-and-over contacted by telephone to reduce any bias occasioned by older adults’
lower internet access.
e questions selected for the research can be divided into two blocks: the rst relates to the type of media consumption and
the second to disinformation.
e rst block includes the question:
How often do you use the following channels for news
?
e ve media formats with the highest frequency of valid responses were chosen from among those available, being: Televi
-
sion/Print Newspapers/Digital Newspapers/Radio/Social Media and Video Platforms.
e responses were originally coded into the categories: Every day, Once or more a week, A few times a month, Hardly ever,
Never, Don’t know.
In an eort to avoid dispersion and facilitate understanding of the results, the rst ve categories have been aggregated into
two: Once a week or more (Every day + One or more a week) and Less than once a week (Sometimes a month + Hardly ever +
Never).
e second block includes questions related to disinformation: degree of exposure to it, ability to detect it, and the role played
by the traditional and social media in its generation.
Regarding the degree of exposure and ability to detect false information, the following questions were posed:
–
For each of the following statements, can you state your degree of agreement or disagreement?
You often nd news or information that you believe distorts reality or is even false.
You nd it easy to identify news or information that you believe distorts reality or is even false
.
To highlight the role of various actors in generating disinformation, the following question has been analysed:
–
Of the following actors, tell me if in your opinion each of them generates a lot, quite a lot, little or no disinformation.
Mainstream media
Social media
ese questions use a Likert scale to determine the level of agreement or disagreement with the categories: Strongly agree,
Agree somewhat, Somewhat disagree, Strongly disagree, Don’t know.
e following socio-demographic characteristics were selected as independent variables: Sex (male/female); Age (15 to 24
years/25 to 44 /45 to 59 /60 to 74 /75 and over); Educational level (grouped by general level: Primary + No education/Compul
-
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sory secondary education/Non-compulsory secondary education/University education), Monthly income (grouped as: Less
than €900 + No income /From €901 to €1800 /Over €1800).
Although the total sample is 1,550 cases, the monthly income variable presents 15% DK/NR responses; the tables and graphs
display valid cases, discarding DK/NR responses for this variable.
A descriptive analysis has been performed, comparing the questions chosen as dependent variables with the socio-demo
-
graphic variables, calculating their value and percentage. is analysis is presented in the form of contingency tables and
graphs, depending on the issue addressed.
Table 1. Values and percentages by socio-demographic variables
VariablesValues%
Total1550100
Sex
Man75848.9
Woman79251.1
Age (years)
Total1550100
15 to 24
19712.7
25 to 44
49231.7
45 to 59
42527.4
60 to 74
30319.5
75 and over
1338.6
Level of education
Total1550100
Primary +No studies
1087.0
Compulsory secondary ed
-
ucation
20813.4
Non-compulsory secondary
education
63541.0
University students
59938.6
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Monthly income
Total1550100
Less than €900 +No income
38524.8
From €901 to €1800
544
35.1
More than €1800
38424.8
DK/NR23715.3
Source: Impact of disinformation in Andalusia (2023). Created by the authors
Since the variables are nominal, the chi-squared statistic was utilised to determine whether the categories are independent or
not, that is, whether there is a statistically signicant dierence between the expected frequency and the observed frequency.
roughout this study, a signicance level of 0.05 is used, i.e., a 5% risk of concluding that there is an association between the
variables when no real association exists, except in Table 1, where the associations for each cross-reference are specied.
e Chi-squared test is calculated with both the disaggregated and aggregated variables in two sum categories: Agree= Strong
-
ly agree + Agree somewhat versus Disagree to contrast the dispersion of the responses.
3. Results
e presentation of results has adopted a deductive approach. Starting with a presentation of data related to news channels,
before proceeding to analyse the way in which disinformation aects the population, the two aspects are nally compared.
3.1. News channels consumed
e table below shows the response percentages for each of the socio-demographic variables analysed that indicate consump
-
tion of the corresponding medium “Once a week or more” (Table 1 & Graph 1).
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Table 2. Percentage of use “Once a week or more” by means of communication
VariablesTelevision
Print
newspapers
Digital
newspapers
Radio
Social
media
and video
platforms
Total82.114.736.758.350.4
Sex
Man79.716.041.463.848.3
Woman84.513.532.253.052.3
Age
15 to 24 years old
77.71.010.236.292.2
25 to 44 years old
76.04.347.247.386.9
45 to 59 years old
85.217.962.167.531.4
60 to 74
86.129.09.970.08.3
75 and over
92.530.817.375.210.9
Level of
education
Primary + No studies
88.914.824.165.713.9
Compulsory secondary
education
86.114.417.356.342.6
Non-compulsory secondary
education
79.116.729.155.949.3
University students
82.812.753.860.260.8
Monthly
income
Less than €900 + No income
76.99.133.045.546.6
From €901 to €1800
83.613.645.063.548.9
More than €1800
88.525.041.170.544.6
Source: Impact of disinformation in Andalusia (2023). Created by the authors
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| 379
Graph 1. Percentage of use “Once a week or more” by medium
Table
2
. Percentage of use "Once a week or more" by means of communication
Source: Impact of disinformation in Andalusia (2023).
Creat
ed by the authors
Graph
1. Percentage of use “Once a week or more” by me
dium
Source: Impact of disinformation in Andalusia (2023).
Creat
ed by the authors
It can be seen that television has held on to its leadership among media outlets as a channel for
consuming news. It far surpasses social media, with 82.1% of Andalusians using it at least once a
week for this purpose. There are no statistically significant differences by gender or education,
though
there are by age: the younger population (between 15 and 44 years of age) watches less
television. Finally, there is a linear association between income level and the use of television as
a news channel: the higher the purchasing power, the more people use
TV.
Regarding print media, in contrast to television, it is the least frequently used medium, with
only
one Andalusian in seven using it once a week or more. There are marked differences by age (from
1% among young people aged 15 to 24
,
to 30.8% among those aged 75 and over) and by income,
with one in four people with a net income of
over
€1,800 reading th
at
media compared to less than
one in ten among those with no income or income
below
€900.
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Man
Woman
15
–
24 years of age
25
–
44
45
–
59
60
–
74
Over 75
Primary / no qualifications
Obligatory secondary
Non-obligatory secondary
Higher education
Less than €900 / no income
€900
-
€1800
Over €1800
TotalSexAge
Level of studiesMonthly income
Television
Print newspapers
Digital newspapers
Radio
Social media & video platforms
Variables
Television
Print
newspapers
Digital
newspapers
Radio
Social
media
and video
platforms
Total
82.1
14.7
36.7
58.3
50.4
Sex
Man
79.7
16.0
41.4
63.8
48.3
Woman
84.5
13.5
32.2
53.0
52.3
Age
15 to 24 years old
77.7
1.0
10.2
36.2
92.2
25 to 44 years old
76.0
4.3
47.2
47.3
86.9
45 to 59 years old
85.2
17.9
62.1
67.5
31.4
60 to 74
86.1
29.0
9.9
70.0
8.3
75 and over
92.5
30.8
17.3
75.2
10.9
Level of
education
Primary
+
No studies
88.9
14.8
24.1
65.7
13.9
Compulsory secondary
education
86.1
14.4
17.3
56.3
42.6
Non-
compulsory secondary
education
79.1
16.7
29.1
55.9
49.3
University students
82.8
12.7
53.8
60.2
60.8
Monthly income
Less than €900 + No income
76.9
9.1
33.0
45.5
46.6
From €901 to €1800
83.6
13.6
45.0
63.5
48.9
More than €1800
88.5
25.0
41.1
70.5
44.6
Source: Impact of disinformation in Andalusia (2023). Created by the authors
It can be seen that television has held on to its leadership among media outlets as a channel for consuming news. It far surpass
-
es social media, with 82.1% of Andalusians using it at least once a week for this purpose. ere are no statistically signicant
dierences by gender or education, though there are by age: the younger population (between 15 and 44 years of age) watches
less television. Finally, there is a linear association between income level and the use of television as a news channel: the high
-
er the purchasing power, the more people use TV.
Regarding print media, in contrast to television, it is the least frequently used medium, with only one Andalusian in seven us
-
ing it once a week or more. ere are marked dierences by age (from 1% among young people aged 15 to 24, to 30.8% among
those aged 75 and over) and by income, with one in four people with a net income of over €1,800 reading that media compared
to less than one in ten among those with no income or income below €900.
Use of the digital press is more widespread, with more than one in three Andalusians reading it at least weekly (36.7%). All
variables show statistically signicant dierences: men read more than women (41.4% vs. 32.2%), the intermediate-aged pop
-
ulation (25 to 59 years old, especially the 45 to 59 age group, with one in six people) read more than the youngest population
and than those over 60. ose with university degrees (more than half do so) read it more than those who do not, and those
with middle-range incomes are just a few percentage points ahead of those with high incomes.
Radio is the second most commonly-used medium after television (58.3%). Women (53%), young people (36.2%), and people
with incomes under 900 euros or no income (45.5%) are the least likely to use this medium for news, with no signicant dier
-
ences based on educational level.
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Finally, the consolidation of social media as a relevant news source for the Andalusian population is evident, as 50.4% use it
at least weekly. e younger population stands out as the most prolic users compared to the population over 60: more than
nine out of ten people in the younger age group use social media for news, a gure that falls to approximately one in ten among
the older population. Educational level shows a positive association with social media use: 60.8% of university graduates use
them, compared to 13.9% of those with no education or only primary schooling.
An analysis of the older population, dierentiating between those aged 60 to 74 and those aged 75 or older, reveals dierences
in consumption. On the one hand, the 60-to-74 age group consumes less television (86.1% vs. 92.5%), radio (70% vs. 75.2%),
and digital press (9.9% vs. 17.3%) than the older group. No signicant dierences were found in the consumption of print
newspapers or in the use of social media and video platforms for news.
3.2. Citizens versus disinformation
is second section presents ndings related to exposure to false information, ability to detect it, and the role that traditional
and social media play in the issue of disinformation.
Tables 2 and 3 show the percentages per row for each category; the degree of agreement refers to the sum of the responses
“Strongly agree” and “Agree.”
Table 3. Often identies false information
Variables
Strongly agree
OKDisagree
Strongly
disagree
DK/NR
Total
42.945.011.40.30.4
Sex
Man
47.141.810.30.40.4
Woman
38.948.112.40.30.4
Age
15 to 24 years old
42.150.37.10.50.0
25 to 44 years old
40.747.211.60.40.2
45 to 59 years old
45.241.213.40.00.2
60 to 74
43.644.210.90.01.3
75 and over
43.643.611.31.50.0
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ISSN: 1696-019X / e-ISSN: 2386-3978
| 381
Level of
education
Primary + No studies
55.635.28.30.90.0
Compulsory secondary
education
45.741.313.00.00.0
Non-compulsory
secondary education
38.146.314.30.50.8
University students
44.746.78.20.20.2
Monthly income
Less than €900+No income
46.541.611.20.50.3
From €901 to €1800
38.647.213.40.40.4
More than €1800
50.539.69.40.00.5
Source: Impact of disinformation in Andalusia (2023). Created by the authors
ere is a general consensus regarding the degree of agreement with the statement that fake news is frequently encountered:
87.9% of Andalusians conrm it (Table 2). Although the gures are very high in all categories, dierences can be found in some
groups: men agree slightly more than women (88.9% vs. 87%); people with greater and lesser incomes and with higher and
lower educational levels perceive the presence of false information more often than those at intermediate levels. For example,
91.4% of those with university studies and 90.8% of those with primary education or less agree with the statement. at indi
-
cates that there is no linear relationship between education/ income and the perception of being exposed to false information.
Finally, it is worth noting that age does not show statistically signicant dierences and that few people fail to answer the
question (only people between 60 and 74 years old are over 1%).
e Chi-squared test values for the original disaggregated categories show statistically signicant dierences in all variables,
while when looking at agreement and disagreement, both being aggregate variables, only the level of educational attainment
produces statistically signicant dierences, since the dierences are due to the intensity of agreement or disagreement.
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Table 4. You nd it easy to identify false information
Variables
Strongly agree
OKDisagree
Strongly
disagree
DK/NR
Total15.352.129.61.71.2
Sex
Man18.547.631.81.60.5
Woman12.256.427.51.91.9
Age
15 to 24 years old
9.153.336.01.50.0
25 to 44 years old
14.255.728.31.80.0
45 to 59 years old
9.454.633.22.80.0
60 to 74
18.548.828.10.74.0
75 and over
39.836.817.30.85.3
Level of
education
Primary + No studies
17.652.819.41.98.3
Compulsory secondary
education
11.549.536.51.41.0
Non-compulsory
secondary education
11.552.833.11.70.9
University students
20.252.325.41.80.3
Monthly income
Less than €900+No income
14.851.727.52.13.9
From €901 to €1800
14.553.329.61.80.7
More than €1800
19.551.327.31.80.0
Source: Impact of disinformation in Andalusia (2023). Created by the authors
Concerning ease of identifying false information (Table 3), and considering the degree of agreement, all the variables are rel
-
evant. 67% of the total population consider it easy to identify fake news (although “agree” predominates over “strongly agree,”
indicating that only about one in six people fully trust their ability). Men are slightly less condent than women (66.1% versus
68.6%). Another relevant nding is that the young population, between 15 and 24 years of age, recognizes their vulnerability to
disinformation (only 62.4% state that it is easy for them to detect it). is contrasts with the older age group, 75 and over, where
more than three out of four believe it is easy to identify. It is particularly striking that 40% of this population strongly agree with
the statement. Regarding educational attainment, again a non-linear association is found: 70.4% of those with primary educa
-
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| 383
tion or no education and 72.5% of those with university education claim that they can easily identify such falsehoods. Finally,
a positive linear association is observed with income level: the higher one’s economic capacity, the easier it is to identify this
type of information (70.8% of those with incomes above €1,800 state this).
Table 5. Amount of disinformation generated by traditional media
Variables
A lotQuite a lot
LittleNoneDK/NR
Total17.743.034.33.41.7
Sex
Man22.639.339.93.70.5
Woman13.146.534.63.02.8
Age
15 to 24 years old
17,848,232.01.50.5
25 to 44 years old
16.152.429.32.00.2
45 to 59 years old
20.237.938.62.40.9
60 to 74
16.837.438.36.34.0
75 and over
18.035.333.15.36.0
Level of education
Primary + No studies
16.735.234.34.69.3
Compulsory secondary
education
18.842.331.35.32.4
Non-compulsory second
-
ary education
19.443.333.13.80.5
University students
15.944,236.62.01.3
Monthly income
Less than €900+No income
17.144.732.52.92.9
From €901 to €1800
19.542.533.64.00.4
More than €1800
16.940.637.52.62.3
Source: Impact of disinformation in Andalusia (2023). Created by the authors
Regarding the role played by the media (Table 4), the results show that just over six of every ten Andalusians believe they gen
-
erate a lot or quite a lot of disinformation. Men are more likely to pin a lot of responsibility on the media, while women tend to
point to ‘quite a lot’, in both cases their combined opinion exceeds 60% (62.2% vs. 61.3%). People aged 45 and over have a less
negative view of the media, which is probably related to the former’s greater consumption of traditional media compared to
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those under 45. Finally, people with lower levels of educational attainment are more forgiving, but with a high percentage of
uncertainty (more than 9% do not know or do not answer). Except for the level of educational attainment, all variables show
statistically signicant dierences.
Table 6. Amount of disinformation generated by social media
Variables
A lotQuite a lot
LittleNoneDK/NR
Total46.033.215.53.61.7
Sex
Man47.930.615.3
4.61.6
Woman44.235.615.72.71.9
Age
15 to 24 years old
40.140.616.23.00.0
25 to 44 years old
46.533.717.32.40.0
45 to 59 years old
48.532.016.72.80.0
60 to 74
44.933.011.25.95.0
75 and over
47.424.113.56.09.0
Level of education
Primary + No studies
47.227.819.45.60.0
Compulsory secondary
education
37.033.722.16.31.0
Non-compulsory
secondary education
44.332.616.14.13.0
University students
50.834.611.91.81.0
Monthly income
Less than €900+No
income
44.435.314.03.92.3
From €901 to €1800
43.931.820.43.90.0
More than €1800
55.231.08.62.62.6
Source: Impact of disinformation in Andalusia (2023). Created by the authors
As regards the role of social media in generating disinformation (Table 5), there is consensus that they generate a lot or quite
a lot (79.2 %). Except for sex, all variables show signicant dierences. ose with university studies are the most critical of
social media (86.2% consider them to generate disinformation), as are those with higher incomes, since almost nine out of ten
feel that social media generates disinformation. Both education and income show a non-linear association, with people with
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| 385
compulsory secondary education and those with average incomes having the most favourable opinion of social media. e
cohorts of 60 years of age and older are those who most frequently either respond that they do not know or do not respond.
Relationship between news consumption and disinformation
is nal section, after analysing how dierent socio-demographic proles utilise the various news channels and how they
perceive disinformation, will also consider whether there is a signicant association between news consumption and expo
-
sure to disinformation, and the role of mainstream and social media in its dissemination.
Chart 1 provides a summary of all the cross-references performed comparing the ve news channels for the four questions
related to disinformation, showing which associations are not signicant and which cells contain standardised residuals that
dier from random expectation.
Chart 1. Association between types of news consumption and various aspects of disinformation
You often nd fake news
You nd it easy
to identify false
information
Generation of LCM
disinformation
Generation of social
media disinformation
Television
Not signicantNot signicant
(0.000)
ose who consume
news once a week or
more are less likely to say
that the media generates
a lot of disinformation
and more likely to say
that it generates little.
Not signicant
Print
Not signicant
(0.020)
ose who consume
news once a week or
more are more likely to
say they agree somewhat
and less likely to say they
disagree somewhat.
(0.000)
ose who access news
once a week or more are
more likely to say that the
media does not generate
any disinformation.
(0.015)
ose who consume
news once a week or
more are more likely
to say that social
media generates a lot
of disinformation and
less likely to say that it
generates little.
Digital press
(0.035)
ose who consume
news once a week or less
are more likely to say
they disagree.
Not signicantNot signicantNot signicant
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Radio
(0.077)
(0.012)
Same pattern as the
printed press
(0.003)
ose who consume
news once a week or
more are less likely to say
that the media generates
a lot of disinformation
and more likely to say
that it generates none.
(0.006)
ose who consume
news once a week or
more are less likely to
say that social media
generates a lot of
disinformation and
more likely to say that it
generates little.
Social media
(0.025)
ose who access news
once a week or more are
more likely to say they
agree somewhat, and
those who use it less are
more likely to say they
strongly agree.
(0.067)
ose who consume
news once a week or
more are less likely to say
they strongly agree.
(0.000)
ose who access news
once a week or more
are less likely to say the
media generates a lot
or no disinformation
and more likely to say it
generates a lot.
(0.000)
ose who consume
news once a week or
more are less likely to
say that social media
generates a lot or no
disinformation and
more likely to say that it
generates a lot.
Note: e signicance of the Chi-squared of each of the cross-references showing statistically signicant associations is indicated in parentheses
Source: Impact of disinformation in Andalusia (2023). Created by the authors
As can be seen, print media is the only medium that shows signicant dierences in the four cases studied for obtaining news,
while, on the contrary, the digital press is not signicant in any case. Very dierent patterns are apparent for those who con
-
sume their news through print as opposed to digital media, with signicant dierences in three of the four questions for the
former, and only one in the latter. Moreover, that one dierence is also the only non-signicant dierence in the case of print
media. Radio and social media both show three signicant associations and a very weak association in one variable (values of
between 0.05 and 0.1).
No signicant dierences were found by the type of television or print media consumption when participants state that fake
news is frequently encountered. In contrast, those who least use digital media as a news channel are the most likely to say they
somewhat disagree with the idea that they frequently encounter disinformation. However, those who use social media less
than once a week for information are more likely to say they strongly agree with that statement, compared to those who use it
more frequently, who tend to be more likely to agree.
Regarding the statement that it is easy for them to detect false information, those who get their news from either print or radio
are more likely to indicate that they somewhat agree with their ability to detect disinformation and are less likely to indicate
that they somewhat disagree, compared to those who use social media as a channel to get news, who are less likely to strongly
agree with this statement.
On the contrary, the question that shows the most signicant associations is the role of the media in generating disinforma
-
tion, as news consumption from digital press is the only type that does not dier signicantly. e observed pattern is that
those who use traditional media for news have a more positive perception of them than those who use social media, ranging
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from those who consume print and radio press (more likely to indicate they generate no disinformation) to television (who
indicate they generate little), while those who use social media are more likely to believe they generate a lot.
A similar, but opposite, pattern emerges when asked how much disinformation social media generates. ose who regularly
use social media for news are more likely to believe they generate a lot of disinformation and less likely to indicate that none is
generated, although they are also less likely to say they generate a lot of disinformation. Conversely, those who get their news
from print media are more likely to perceive that they generate a lot of disinformation, those who get their news from the radio
believe they generate a lot, and both types of traditional media consumers are less likely to indicate that social media generates
little disinformation.
4. Conclusions
e approach taken by this study has allowed identication of the dynamics of news consumption in Andalusia and the local
population’s perception of disinformation based on the dierent socio-demographic variables considered (sex, age, educa
-
tional level, and income). A novel aspect is that within the older population, a distinction has been made between those aged
60 to 74 and those over that age. roughout the study, the following research questions have been answered:
1. What socio-demographic variables are associated with greater vulnerability to disinformation in Andalusia?
Vulnerability to disinformation presents relevant patterns associated with age, educational level, and income. e results are
in line with previous research (Reuter et al., 2019; Buchanan, 2020) in that they indicate that young people and those with
lower educational levels show greater vulnerability to information disorders. Young people aged 15 to 24 are the most likely to
recognize their diculties in detecting false information, while those over 75 show greater condence in their ability. Regard
-
ing sex, women feel more condent in identifying disinformation, which is a signicant nding regarding their digital skills.
It is especially interesting that our results on educational level are not linear; although those with university studies perceive
detection as easier, so do people with lower educational levels. is could be related to overcondence in their ability or a low
-
er awareness of the complexities of the media and digital platform ecosystem, as suggested by Pan et al. (2021). It is signicant
that a higher level of income is related to a greater perceived ability to identify disinformation, results consistent with those
obtained by Gelado-Marcos et al. (2022).
2. What news consumption patterns are observed among the groups most vulnerable to disinformation?
Young people, who admit their vulnerability to disinformation, stand out for their dependence on social media as their prima
-
ry news source. In contrast, those over 75 years of age mainly turn to television and print media. is coincides with studies
such as that by Reneses Botija, Riberas-Gutiérrez, and Bueno-Guerra (2024) which highlights the role of traditional media in
the perception of disinformation. It is important to note that television continues to be the lead channel for news reporting
in Andalusia, although viewership gures drop signicantly among young people. To assess the data on television use in the
region (82.1%), it should be compared with the Digital News Report 2024, which found that 56% of Spaniards prefer it as a
source of information.
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Are there any dierences in the perception of the role of traditional and social media in generating disinformation according
to socio-demographic proles or news consumption habits?
Nearly eight out of ten Andalusians believe that social media generates a lot or quite a lot of disinformation, a perception that
is especially critical among those with university degrees and among higher-income individuals, that is, the least vulnerable
groups. In contrast, six out of ten believe that traditional media also contribute to disinformation. Social media are seen as the
main culprit, while traditional media are viewed more leniently, especially by their regular users.
As regards news consumption habits, those who access their news through traditional media have a more positive perception
of them than those who use social media; conversely, those who consume mainstream media have a more negative opinion of
social media as a source of disinformation than those who use those platforms regularly.
3. Are there any signicant dierences in the response to disinformation based on socio-demographic variables or news
consumption habits?
Reactions to disinformation are inuenced by news consumption habits. Consumers of print and radio news have a more
positive perception of their ability to identify disinformation. Conversely, those who rely on social media are more likely to
perceive them as generating disinformation and show less condence in their ability to detect it.
e results show that traditional, long-established publications, which form the so-called mainstream press, play a better role
in combating disinformation than the digital press, which coexists with pseudo-media outlets that fail to adhere to journalis
-
tic routines and practices. ose who obtain their news through print media are more condent in their ability to detect fake
news. is group has a more positive opinion of the media’s role and a more negative opinion of social media as a source of
disinformation. However, it should be noted that only a minority of the population surveyed uses this channel for information
at least once a week (about one in six people).
e greatest consumption of print media for information is concentrated in the over-60s, which is consistent with the ndings
that people over 75 are more condent about detecting false information, compared to the younger group, who consume less
print media and, furthermore, are the least condent in their ability to detect such information.
e results of this study reveal important socio-educational implications. e ndings lead to recommendations for imple
-
menting media literacy programs that take the socio-demographic dierences and news consumption habits of the target
audiences into account, and for assessing their eectiveness.
In view of the data, we can summarise the following results:
–
Younger people and those with lower educational attainment levels are more vulnerable to disinformation.
–
e over-75s feel more condent in their ability to identify false news.
–
Women are more adept at identifying disinformation and feel more condent than men.
–
Higher income levels are associated with a greater perceived ability to detect disinformation.
–
People with lower and higher educational levels report greater ease in identifying disinformation, although the reasons for
this could be dierent (overcondence or lack of awareness about the complexities of the information ecosystem).
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| 389
Although this study oers valuable insight into disinformation among socially vulnerable groups in Andalusia, the concen
-
tration of the sample in a specic geographic area suggests caution when extrapolating the results to other areas. It is there
-
fore essential to conduct comparative studies that encompass other autonomous regions or countries to explore similarities
and dierences regarding vulnerability to disinformation. is study hopes to pave the way for future work using qualitative
methodologies, such as interviews or focus groups, or experimental tests, to enrich and complete the picture drawn about the
relationship between the most vulnerable social groups and disinformation.
5. Acknowledgments
e authors wish to thank Brian O’Halloran for his translation of this paper from the original Spanish. is article is part of
the Excellence Project, Andalusian Plan for Research, Development and Innovation (PAIDI 2020): “Impact of disinformation
in Andalusia: cross-sectional analysis of audiences, journalistic routines and agendas” (DesinfoAND. Ref: ProyExc_00143.
2022-2025).
6. Specic contributions of each author
Name and Surnam
e
Conception and design of the work
María Francisca Montiel, Livia García Faroldi and
Laura Teruel Rodríguez
Methodology
María Francisca Montiel and Livia García Faroldi
Data collection and analysis
María Francisca Montiel, Livia García Faroldi and
Laura Teruel Rodríguez
Discussion and conclusions
Laura Teruel Rodríguez and Francisco Marcos Martín
Martín
Drafting, formatting, version review and approval
Maria Francisca Montiel, Livia Garcia Faroldi, Laura
Teruel Rodriguez and Francisco Marcos Martin Martin
7. Conicts of interest
e authors declare that there is no conict of interest contained in this article.
390 |
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