The presence of regional and local aspects about disinformation in
scientic production in Spain and Portugal: a review of the state of
the art
Presencia de los aspectos regionales y locales sobre desinformación en la
producción cientíca en España y Portugal: revisión del estado de la cuestión
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July-December of 2025
ISSN: 1696-019X / e-ISSN: 2386-3978
How to cite this article:
Morais, R. and Piñeiro-Naval, V. (2025). e presence of regional and local aspects about disinformation in scientic production in Spain and
Portugal: a review of the state of the art.
Doxa Comunicación
, 41, pp. 341-368.
https://doi.org/10.31921/doxacom.n41a2905
Ricardo Morais.
Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Arts and Humanities of the University of Porto. He holds a PhD in
Communication Sciences from the University of Beira Interior (UBI). He is a researcher at the Transdisciplinary Culture,
Space and Memory Research Center (CITCEM), and a member of the Information, Communication and Digital Culture
research group. He is also a collaborator at LabCom, a research unit at the University of Beira Interior and Foreign
Collaborating Member of the Multimundos research group - Interdisciplinary Studies of Contemporary Tensions, at the
Federal University of Mato Grosso. He is a researcher of the project “CitiLink - Enhancing municipal transparency and
citizen engagement through AI: from unstructured to structured data”. He was a researcher on the project “MediaTrust.
Lab - Laboratory of Regional Media for Civic Trust and Literacy”. He has researched, published and presented works,
articles and book chapters in dierent areas of communication, among which journalism stands out, but also political
communication and organizational communication.
CITCEM, University of Porto, Portugal
[email protected]
ORCID:
0000-0001-8827-0299
Valeriano Piñeiro-Naval.
Permanent Lecturer at the Department of Sociology and Communication (University of
Salamanca, Spain), where he teaches courses in transmedia storytelling, audiovisual communication and cultural
heritage. He is member of the research group Observatory for Audiovisual Contents, where he is part of several research
projects funded by the Spanish Ministry of Science and Innovation. His research interests focus on the dynamics
established between culture, heritage and tourism in the digital society, content and design analysis of municipal
websites, meta-research in communication sciences and transmedia storytelling. He also coordinates the Master’s
Degree in Audiovisual Communication: Research and Innovation at the University of Salamanca.
University of Salamanca, Spain
[email protected]
ORCID:
0000-0001-9521-3364
is content is published under Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial License. International License CC BY-NC 4.0
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Recibido: 31/01/2025 - Aceptado: 03/06/2025 - En edición: 17/06/2025 - Publicado: 01/07/2025
Resumen:
En una era caracterizada por la rápida difusión de la información a través
de plataformas digitales, comprender los matices de la desinformación se
ha vuelto cada vez más crucial. A pesar de que la desinformación es un
problema global, sus manifestaciones varían considerablemente a nivel
regional y local. Por ello, en este artículo nos proponemos analizar en qué
medida la investigación académica sobre esta problemática reeja con
precisión las realidades contextuales del fenómeno. A través de un aná
-
lisis bibliométrico de rendimiento y una revisión exhaustiva de la litera
-
tura cientíca publicada en Portugal y España entre el 1 de enero de 2019
y el 30 de abril de 2025, indexada en Web of Science y Scopus (n=187),
buscamos entender cómo la investigación académica ha abordado este
fenómeno y qué atención se ha dedicado a sus dimensiones regionales y
locales. Por lo tanto, en este trabajo, nuestro objetivo es identicar las lagu
-
nas en la investigación actual, especialmente aquellas que omiten factores
especícos de cada comunidad y que inuyen en la difusión y recepción
de la desinformación. Analizaremos si los procesos relacionados se han
estudiado desde perspectivas locales y regionales en España y Portugal.
Los resultados evidenciarán la necesidad de enfoques más localizados en
la investigación académica, garantizando que los estudios no solo contri
-
buyan a la comprensión teórica de la desinformación como fenómeno glo
-
bal, sino que también ofrezcan intervenciones prácticas para combatirla a
nivel regional y local. Además, esta propuesta aboga por una comprensión
más integral de la desinformación en sus diversas dimensiones y geogra
-
fías dentro de una vertiente académica.
Palabras claves:
Desinformación; regional; local; España; Portugal; artículos cientícos;
Web of Science.
Received: 31/01/2025 - Accepted: 03/06/2025 - Early access: 17/06/2025 - Published: 01/07/2025
Abstract:
In an era characterized by the rapid spread of information across
digital platforms, understanding the nuances of disinformation
has become increasingly critical. Since disinformation is a global
problem but has substantially dierent manifestations at regional
and local scales, in this article, we aim to explore the extent to
which academic research on this issue accurately reects the
contextual realities of the phenomenon. rough a bibliometric
analysis of performance and an exhaustive literature review
of scientic articles published in Portugal and Spain between
January 1, 2019 - April 30, 2025, and indexed in Web of Science
and Scopus (n=187), we try to understand how academic research
has addressed this phenomenon and what space has been given
to disinformation’s regional and local dimensions. erefore, in
this work, we aim to identify gaps in current research that overlook
community-specic factors inuencing the dissemination and
reception of disinformation, analyzing whether disinformation
processes have been studied in Spain and Portugal from regional
and local perspectives. Our ndings will highlight the need for more
localized approaches in academic research, ensuring that studies
contribute to the theoretical understanding of disinformation as a
global phenomenon with practical interventions in combating it at
regional and local levels. Moreover, this proposal advocates for a
more comprehensive understanding of disinformation in academic
research in its dierent dimensions and geographies.
Keywords:
Disinformation; regional; local; Spain; Portugal; scientic articles; Web
of Science.
1. Introduction
In the digital age, where information ows freely and rapidly across many platforms, disinformation has become a pressing
concern aecting societies globally (Jerónimo et al., 2023; Correia et al., 2022; Cea & Palomo, 2021). e impact of disinformation
extends beyond mere misinformation, it can shape public perceptions, inuence political landscapes, and erode trust in
institutions (Warin, 2024; Tumber & Waisbord, 2021; Bennett & Livingston, 2018). However, it is crucial to recognize that
disinformation is not a uniform phenomenon, as it varies signicantly in its forms and eects depending on regional and local
contexts (Torre & Jerónimo, 2023; Alcaide-Pulido, 2023; Torre et al., 2023; Miranda et al., 2023; Jerónimo & Esparza, 2022). is
variation underscores the importance of dissecting the complexities of disinformation better to understand its implications in
specic local and regional environments, which are still insuciently studied (Jerónimo & Esparza, 2022; García-Marín & Salvat-
Martinrey, 2021, 2022).
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It is important to highlight that when we discuss local and regional disinformation, we’re addressing the critical issue of false
or misleading information specically targeted at distinct geographic areas or communities (Fernández-Barrero et al., 2024;
Jerónimo & Esparza, 2022). is can manifest in various harmful ways, including hoaxes and rumors about a wide range of
issues that aect the lives of communities. Especially in moments of crisis misinformation can spread like wildre, exacerbating
community stress and confusion (Jerónimo & Esparza, 2022). Additionally, this kind of disinformation is skilled at exploiting
existing social tensions, regional identities, and cultural beliefs, deepening divides within the community. Local disinformation
frequently leverages trusted local news sources, community social media platforms, and personal connections, making it far
more dangerous (Fernández-Barrero et al., 2024; Jerónimo & Esparza, 2022). e impact is profound and immediate, local
disinformation can undermine trust in essential institutions, incite community conict, and radically alter behaviors more
quickly than broader national narratives ever could.
erefore, in this article, we explore the academic discourse surrounding disinformation, mainly through the lens of scientic
studies published in Portugal and Spain in recent years (2019-2025), as indexed in the Web of Science (WoS) and Scopus. Our
analysis will highlight how eectively these articles capture the contextual realities of disinformation as it exists within these
Iberian nations. Specically, we will examine how research has acknowledged and incorporated regional and local dimensions
of disinformation, including cultural, social, and political factors that may inuence how disinformation is disseminated and
received within dierent communities.
Considering these objectives, we dened the following research questions to guide us during the study: “How do academic
publications in Portugal and Spain, indexed in WoS and Scopus, characterize the phenomenon of disinformation, and what
frameworks do they employ to analyze it?” (RQ1); “To what extent do existing academic studies indexed in these databases
address the regional and local dimensions of disinformation in Portugal and Spain?” (RQ2); and “What methodologies have
been predominantly used in examining disinformation in the academic articles analyzed, and how do these methodologies
shape ndings?” (RQ3).
e relevance of this proposal is supported by research already carried out, namely the dierent bibliometric studies that
indicate that a large part of the publications on disinformation continue to present perspectives that are too focused on the
same contexts and realities because they are essentially produced by authors and/or universities in the United States of
America (USA) and United Kingdom (UK) (Navarro-Sierra et al., 2024; T
ă
taru et al., 2024; Durr-Missau, 2024; Cea & Palomo,
2021). Although Spain also stands out as one of the countries that has contributed the most to research on disinformation,
studies carried out on publication in this country warn of the need to study disinformation in the local context (Alcaide-Pulido,
2023; García-Marín & Salvat-Martinrey, 2021, 2022).
erefore, through this investigation, we aim to identify notable gaps in the existing body of research. By bringing these gaps
to light, we will argue for adopting more localized research methodologies that not only enhance the theoretical frameworks
for understanding disinformation as a global issue but also resonate with real-world, mainly local and regional applications.
Our ndings will ultimately advocate for a more focused approach to studying disinformation, encompassing its various
dimensions and geographies. Academic investigations into disinformation must be not only theoretically robust but also
practically relevant, providing insights that can inform targeted interventions and strategies to combat this pervasive challenge
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at both regional and local levels. rough this comprehensive understanding, researchers and practitioners can better equip
communities to navigate the complexities of disinformation in an increasingly interconnected world.
is paper is divided into three sections. e rst section briey overviews the growth of disinformation studies and explains
the concepts and denitions related to information disorder. In the second section, we describe the methodology used for
the study, precisely the meta-investigation approach. e following section presents the results of our analysis. Finally, we
conclude by discussing the limitations of the research and suggesting directions for future studies.
2. State of the art
In recent years, the idea of disinformation, especially in the form of fake news, has sparked numerous scientic articles across
various countries and contexts, highlighting its status as a critical issue in today’s society. According to Salaverría and Cardoso
(2023) “in parallel with the surge of disinformation, academic interest in this phenomenon has grown in recent years. Research
groups, observatories, and international academic networks are studying this phenomenon” (p. 2). e authors further consider
that “the projects, methodologies, and contexts by which the public dissemination of falsehoods is studied have multiplied, to the
point where they now compose a diverse and especially fruitful corpus of research” (Salaverría & Cardoso, 2023, p. 2).
In this context of multiplication of the corpus of publications on disinformation, bibliometric studies have emerged as an
important contribution to “understand the evolution and dimension of disinformation”, as well as the “historical and social
context that explains why it has emerged and intensied in recent times, especially in relation to technological development and
changes in media consumption, as well as its multidisciplinary nature through knowledge of the areas in which this phenomenon
is addressed” (Navarro-Sierra et al., 2024, p. 2). erefore, and according to some bibliometric studies, in recent decades, but
especially since the COVID-19 pandemic, disinformation and misinformation become one of the most researched topics in the
elds of social sciences and communication (Sandu et al., 2024; Durr-Missau, 2024; T
ă
taru et al., 2024; Navarro-Sierra et al., 2024;
KaabOmeir et al., 2024; Pandey & Ghosh, 2023; Salvador-Mata et al., 2023; Li et al., 2023; Pérez-Escolar et al., 2023; García-Marín &
Salvat-Martinrey, 2021, 2022; Bran et al., 2021). Nevertheless, in the context of growing studies on disinformation, what has been
the focus of investigations? What topics have been privileged? What objects of study have been analyzed?
Several of the bibliometric studies carried out eectively present data on research into disinformation, highlighting “the
importance of disinformation as an object of study” (Navarro-Sierra et al., 2024, p. 17) and creating, according to the authors, “a
foundation for researchers and governments to begin to take into account the dangers of disinformation, promoting methods
that mitigate the spread of false information” (T
ă
taru et al., 2024, p. 34). However, the truth is that many of these studies
present multiple of the limitations of bibliometric studies, mainly because, to systematize and quantify the results, they do not
allow, in numerous cases, a practical understanding of the characteristics of studies on disinformation.
In this context, we highlight the work of Salaverría and Cardoso (2023), which, although not a bibliometric study, presents
important contributions to studies on disinformation since the authors seek to categorize the dierent studies already carried
out on this topic. e authors identify several key research avenues:
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1.
“Typological Studies”: ese focus on classifying and dening disinformative content, making a distinction between
unintentional errors (misinformation) and intentional falsehoods (disinformation).
2.
“Fact-Checking Studies”: is category examines the role of fact-checking organizations, evaluating their professional
functions, ethical standards, and organizational structures.
3.
“Disinformation on Digital Platforms”: Researchers analyze the online spread of disinformation, investigating practices
such as impostor proles, bots, and trolls.
4.
“Media Literacy Studies” focuses on teaching critical thinking and fact-checking skills, especially to youth.
rough this typology, the authors provide a comprehensive overview of the diverse strands of research that seek to understand
and combat disinformation. Moreover, in addition to exploring current lines of research, the authors also point to emerging
areas that require greater attention. erefore, according to Salaverría and Cardoso (2023), “the continuous transformation of
the channels of dissemination, production technologies, and derived eects of false content demands that new lines of study
are opened” (p. 3). Among the lines of research that “have not yet been suciently explored so far” and that could “pave the
way to a new era of disinformation studies”, the authors highlight the following:
1.
“Studies on disinformation narratives”, which try to understand the logic behind the rise of some fake news in specic contexts.
In these studies, the main goal is to “focus more on general and systemic aspects” (Salaverría & Cardoso, 2023, p. 3).
2.
“Studies on international manipulation and interference”, with investigations focusing on the incidence of international
disinformation agents who seek to destabilize countries and interfere in the electoral processes. e authors highlight
that “research on the phenomena of Foreign Information Manipulation and Interference (FIMI) is often close to strategic
intelligence and cybersecurity, transcending the capabilities and competencies of ordinary academic researchers”
(Salaverría & Cardoso, 2023, p. 4).
3.
“Studies on AI-generated disinformation” focused on analyzing the impact of generative articial intelligence technologies,
which allow the creation and manipulation of content easily.
4.
“Cross-platform disinformation studies”, dedicated to investigating the spread of disinformation in areas other than social
media. According to the authors, “fact-checking organizations dedicate much of their work to verifying public discourse
but, in contrast, there is little academic research dedicated to analyzing the creation and strategic dissemination of
disinformation discourses from political parties and leaders (e.g. Llorca et al., 2021)” (Salaverría & Cardoso, 2023, p. 4).
5.
“ematic studies on disinformation”, which expand research beyond politics, addressing “topics such as the environment
and the global climate crisis, immigration, or the reduction of social inequalities” (Salaverría & Cardoso, 2023, p. 4).
6.
“Multidisciplinary disinformation studies” focused on promoting collaboration between dierent areas of knowledge,
such as linguistics, AI, psychology and neuroscience. e authors highlight that “studies with a multidisciplinary approach
are scarce” and that “some of the most promising and fruitful lines of work in recent years come from this knowledge
sharing”, namely “the combination of linguistics and articial intelligence technologies” (Salaverría & Cardoso, 2023, p. 5).
7.
“Studies on media literacy for the elderly” focused on analyzing the information consumption habits of older people and on
ways to reinforce their protection against false messages (e.g. Sádaba et al., 2023; Moore & Hancock, 2022; Rasi et al., 2020).
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Considering all the new or emerging lines of research presented by the authors, it is interesting that we do not nd, at least
apparently, any reference to studies on disinformation at a local or regional level. e issue is even more relevant if we consider
that several authors consider this to be a aw that exists in the literature (Torre & Jerónimo, 2023; Alcaide-Pulido, 2023; Jerónimo
& Esparza, 2022; García-Marín & Salvat-Martinrey, 2022, 2021). e truth is that local disinformation is an emerging concern
that threatens community information ecosystems and democratic processes. While local media traditionally are closer to
communities and, because of that, enjoy higher credibility regarding some subjects, the lack of resources in newsrooms often
aects the work they can do, namely in terms of verication of information (Torre et al., 2023; Miranda et al., 2023; Morais et
al., 2020). erefore, the decline of local media, accelerated by the pandemic and digital transformation, has left communities
vulnerable to misinformation spread through social media (Torre & Jerónimo, 2023; Jerónimo & Esparza, 2022). Researchers
suggest that addressing local disinformation requires training journalists, developing fact-checking strategies, and fostering
collaboration between journalists and active community members (Fernández-Barrero et al., 2024; Torre & Jerónimo, 2023;
Jerónimo & Esparza, 2022). e local public sphere may oer potential solutions to this growing problem, which has been
understudied in disinformation research.
erefore, what motivated us to carry out this work has to do with the fact that we understand that academia also has
responsibilities in terms of identifying strategies to ght against disinformation that does not focus solely on the national
or supranational level, that does not just follow the latest technological trends or specic thematic agendas. at is why we
sought to understand to what extent existing academic studies address disinformation’s regional and local dimensions in
Portugal and Spain. e reason why we chose these two countries was not random, but on the contrary, it was also supported
by studies already published, which indicate that Spain is one of the countries, after the Anglo-Saxons, with the most research
in the area of disinformation (T
ă
taru et al., 2024; Navarro-Sierra et al., 2024), but also because in these two countries we nd
research projects focused on the study of disinformation at a local level, such as “MediaTrust.Lab: Regional Media Laboratory
for Trust and Civic Literacy”, developed at LabCom: Laboratory of Communication, a research unit of the Faculty of Arts and
Letters (FAL) of the University of Beira Interior (UBI) in partnership with the University of Coimbra, and “Fakelocal: Map
of Disinformation in Communities Autonomous and Local Entities of Spain and its Digital Ecosystem”, developed by the
Universities of Santiago de Compostela and Vigo.
In the case of the rst, as “a pioneering study on disinformation in local contexts in Portugal”, the objective is to “identify and
analyze strategies and practices for verifying information by regional media journalists and the potential collaboration of
the public local communication processes in the process” (Universidade da Beira Interior, 2021), as explained by the project
manager and LabCom researcher, Pedro Jerónimo. In the case of the second, the objective is to “see what impact disinformation
has at a regional and local level”, explains coordinator Xosé Rúas, highlighting that “disinformation crises not only come from
the global to the local level” but also can happen in the opposite direction, this being a reality that has been little studied
(University of Santiago de Compostela, 2023).
In addition to the number of publications and projects developed in each country on disinformation, it is also worth noting
that several authors (Gelado-Marcos et al., 2025; Baldi & Ballesteros-Aguayo, 2024; Jerónimo & Sánchez Esparza, 2023) have,
in recent years, adopted an Iberian approach to the study of disinformation, namely through an analysis of fact-checking
as a strategy to combat disinformation. is comparative approach should also be understood in the wake of the work of
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the European Digital Media Observatory (EDMO) and in particular of one of the rst hubs created within it, with the aim of
addressing content verication in the Iberian context, the Iberian Digital Media Observatory (IBERIFIER). is Observatory,
which brings together the countries of the Iberian Peninsula, has as its main mission “to analyze the Iberian digital media
ecosystem and tackle the problem of disinformation” (IBERIFIER, n/d).
e question we pose is then to understand whether only these institutions and projects consider that local and regional
disinformation can be an object of study or whether, on the contrary, we nd studies focused on examining the misinformation
from a local and regional point of view in the articles already published in recent years.
At this point it is also important to highlight that in this investigation we consider for analysis purposes the period that begins
in 2019 and goes until 2025, since if it is true that the manipulation of information is not a new phenomenon, what we are
witnessing in the 21st century is to “the weaponization of information on an unprecedented scale” (Ireton & Posetti, 2018,
p. 15). On the other hand, research shows that it was mainly from the second half of 2016 that people started to search for
the term “fake news” (Wardle & Derakhshan, 2018), this also being the year that marks a paradigm shift, in the sense that it
became clear that “the online information infrastructure was particularly permeable to disinformation and misinformation”
(Mantzarlis, 2018, p. 82).
According to some studies, there have been publications on information disorder since at least 1980 (T
ă
taru et al., 2024).
However, the authors emphasize that for several years, “the publication rate in the eld of disinformation was minimal” (T
ă
taru
et al., 2024, p. 7). It is mainly from 2014 onwards that we see a change in the trend of publishing articles on disinformation
(T
ă
taru et al., 2024; Navarro-Sierra et al., 2024; Pérez-Escolar et al., 2023), which would intensify in the following years, albeit
in dierent ways depending on the geographical context. From 2016 onwards, for example, following the Brexit referendum,
as well as the US elections that led to Donald Trump becoming US President, we see a new growth in scientic production
on disinformation and so-called “fake news” (T
ă
taru et al., 2024; Navarro-Sierra et al., 2024; Pérez-Escolar et al., 2023; Cea &
Palomo, 2021). However, if we look at other realities, such as the Portuguese and Spanish ones, which we seek to study in this
article, we notice, in line with the trend already identied in other studies (Navarro-Sierra et al., 2024; García-Marín & Salvat-
Martinrey, 2021, 2022), that it is mainly from 2018 onwards that there is an increase in publications on disinformation, “which
is consolidated in the period 2020–2023, in which almost 80% of the documents are concentrated” (Navarro-Sierra et al., 2024,
p. 4). According to García-Marín and Salvat-Martinrey (2022), “the great quantitative leap took place in 2019, when works
tripled compared to the previous year” (p. 32).
is increase in publications is explained mainly by the Covid-19 pandemic, “when misinformation and disinformation not
only threaten societal coercion but people’s lives” (Pérez-Escolar et al., 2023, p. 76), which led the World Health Organization
itself to mention that we were living in an infodemic era. It remains to be seen whether there are other events that, in the
context of these countries, contributed to the increase in publications, as seems to be the case in Spain, with the increase in
studies on disinformation related to the elections (e.g. Rando-Cueto et al., 2025; Lava-Santos et al., 2023; Tirado-García, 2023;
Rivas-de-Roca et al., 2022; Rodríguez-Fernández, 2020; Paniagua Rojano et al., 2020) and on the independence of Catalonia
(e.g. Pérez-Curiel et al., 2022; Llorca-Asensi et al., 2021; Aparici et al., 2019; Coromina & Padilla, 2018; ) or more recently with
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the studies carried out by researchers from both countries on disinformation about the War in Ukraine (e.g. Morais et al., 2025;
Ballesteros-Aguayo et al., 2024; Sánchez del Vas & Tuñón Navarro, 2024; Baptista et al., 2023; Magallón-Rosa et al., 2023).
3. Methods
As we mentioned earlier, much attention has been paid to the phenomenon of information disorder (Navarro-Sierra et al.,
2024; T
ă
taru et al., 2024; Durr-Missau, 2024; Pérez-Escolar et al., 2023; Wang et al., 2022; García-Marín & Salvat-Martinrey,
2022; Pérez-Curiel, & Rivas-de-Roca, 2022; Bran et al., 2021; Cea & Palomo, 2021), mainly to disinformation and fake news.
Much of this attention is revealed in the number of articles published. Bibliometric studies also have sought to account for
this growth. However, in most of these studies, the focus has been on studying disinformation from a macro perspective; that
is, these studies have failed to identify the local and regional dimensions of disinformation research (Torre & Jerónimo, 2023;
Alcaide-Pulido, 2023; Jerónimo & Esparza, 2022; García-Marín & Salvat-Martinrey, 2022, 2021). is approach is precisely the
gap that we seek to ll with this article, which, as meta-research, seeks not only to identify the focus and amount of work that
has been produced on disinformation in Portugal and Spain in the last years (January 1, 2019 - April 30, 2025) but, above all,
understand whether disinformation has also been studied in these articles through regional and local perspectives.
e choice of Portugal and Spain has already been explained previously, but it is important to highlight that disinformation
is a signicant concern in Portugal and Spain, with Governments taking measures to combat it and promote media literacy
(Moreno-Castro et al., 2023). On the other hand, despite the dierences between the countries, their media systems are
interconnected through several shared features. Both can be framed within the concept of “polarized pluralism” (Hallin
& Mancini, 2004), where media ecosystems are inuenced by a combination of competitive market forces and signicant
political factors. is is especially evident in the strategic use of media by political actors (Gelado-Marcos et al., 2025). us,
this is yet another reason, in addition to those previously indicated, such as the number of publications, research projects and
cooperation networks regarding disinformation (Portugal and Spain are members of the EDMO network and together they
form IBERIFIER, the Digital Media Research and Fact-Checking Hub), to justify the selection of the two countries for this study.
Based on these objectives, we developed three main questions that we believe have not yet been answered by the work already
carried out:
RQ1: How do academic publications in Portugal and Spain, indexed in WoS and Scopus characterize the phenomenon of
disinformation, and what frameworks do they employ to analyze it?
RQ2: To what extent do existing academic studies indexed in these databases address the regional and local dimensions of
disinformation in Portugal and Spain?
RQ3: What methodologies have been predominantly used in examining disinformation in the academic articles analyzed,
and how do these methodologies shape ndings?
To achieve these goals and answer these research questions, we searched for articles about disinformation published in
journals indexed in the Web of Science and Scopus. To identify the articles, we used the following search algorithms:
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Web of Science
▪
[Topic=“disinformation” AND “fake news” AND “Portugal”] AND [Document Type=“Article”] AND [Web of Science In
-
dex=“SSCI” OR “ESCI”]=18 articles.
▪
[Topic=“misinformation” AND “fake news” AND “Portugal”] AND [Document Type=“Article”] AND [Web of Science In
-
dex=“SSCI” OR “ESCI”]=12 articles.
▪
[Topic=“disinformation” AND “fake news” AND “Spain”] AND [Document Type =“Article”] AND [Web of Science In
-
dex=“SSCI” OR “ESCI”]=115 articles.
▪
[Topic=“misinformation” AND “fake news” AND “Spain”] AND [Document Type =“Article”] AND [Web of Science In
-
dex=“SSCI” OR “ESCI”]=72 articles.
Scopus
▪
[TITLE-ABS-KEY (disinformation) AND TITLE-ABS-KEY (fake AND news) AND TITLE-ABS-KEY (Portugal)] AND [LI
-
MIT-TO (DOCTYPE , “article”)]=20 articles.
▪
[TITLE-ABS-KEY (misinformation) AND TITLE-ABS-KEY (fake AND news) AND TITLE-ABS-KEY (Portugal)] AND [LI
-
MIT-TO (DOCTYPE , “article”)]=11 articles.
▪
[TITLE-ABS-KEY (disinformation) AND TITLE-ABS-KEY (fake AND news) AND TITLE-ABS-KEY (Spain)] AND [LIMIT-TO
( DOCTYPE , “article”)]=102 articles.
▪
[TITLE-ABS-KEY (misinformation) AND TITLE-ABS-KEY (fake AND news) AND TITLE-ABS-KEY (Spain)] AND [LI
-
MIT-TO (DOCTYPE , “article”)]=53 articles.
e data retrieval carried out on April 30, 2025, allowed the identication of 403 articles, distributed as follows: WoS (Portugal:
n=30; Spain: n=187) and Scopus (Portugal: n=31; Spain: n=155).
It is important to highlight that the search terms had to be in the article’s title, abstract, or keywords, since authors nd that
“Abstract, the Title, and the Keywords were enough to perform a substantially decent evaluation of a manuscript” (Chamorro-
Padial & Rodríguez-Sánchez et al., 2023, p. 23075). On the other hand, we should also point out that in addition to the term
disinformation, we also considered the terms’ misinformation and mal-information, as they integrate “the spectrum of
information disorder” (Wardle & Derakhshan, 2018, p. 43). On the other hand, he also considers the term fake news in our
research, since, although “fake news is an oxymoron that undermines the credibility of information that does indeed meet the
threshold of veriability and public interest – i.e. real news” (Berger, 2018, p. 7), the truth is that several studies have shown
that this continues to be one of the most used terms in academic research, namely, in titles, abstracts and keywords (T
ă
taru et
al., 2024; Bran et al., 2021).
From the total number of articles identied in the search, we performed a cleaning process to eliminate repeated articles in
each of the databases and between databases, since we identied a large number of articles indexed in both WoS and Scopus.
us, after eliminating these articles, the nal sample consists of 187 articles.
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Table 1. Distribution of articles in the sample by country and database
SpainPortugal
Portugal & Spain
Only Scopus
2551
Only WoS
4423
Scopus and Wos
9098
Total1591612
Source: authors’ own elaboration
Based on the data found in the research, and according to previous similar studies (e.g., Morais et al., 2025), we rst carried
out a preliminary performance analysis to identify the year of publication, journal name, institutional aliation and country
of origin. In a second step, and through an in-depth literature review, we seek to understand, through the analysis of the
research objectives and questions, as well as the methodologies, what the geographical focus of the articles is, that is, whether
we are faced with articles that analyze the phenomenon of disinformation from a national, regional or local point of view. At
this point, as we have had the opportunity to do previously, it is important to highlight our understanding of disinformation
with a local or regional focus. Local and regional disinformation diers from national disinformation because it focuses on
specic communities, making its impact more immediate and relevant. It often spreads through trusted local news sources
and community networks, making it more dangerous (Fernández-Barrero et al., 2024; Jerónimo & Esparza, 2023; Jerónimo
& Esparza, 2022). Local and regional disinformation can quickly damage trust in important institutions, spark conicts, and
change behaviors faster than national messages can.
4. Results
We begin presenting the results with the distribution of the number of articles in the sample by year and country.
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Figure 1. Distribution of number of articles by country and year
Source: authors’ own elaboration using WOS and Scopus data
e data collected allows us to see that 2023 is the year with the highest number of published works, mainly due to production
in Spain (Figure 1), and it is also the year in which we nd the most articles indexed in the two databases and that appear
in searches in both countries. It is also important to remember that the data was collected on April 30, 2025, so it is not yet
possible to predict whether this will be a year with many publications about disinformation in the Iberian context.
e data also allows us to see that considering the terms of the research, Spain stands out as being associated with a more
signicant number of publications, which may be the result of the dierence in terms of the size of the academic and scientic
systems between the two countries but may also indicate distinct research priorities. In any case, an analysis of the authors of
the works, their institutional aliation, and the journals in which they were published will deepen this analysis and establish
an eective comparison between the two countries. On the other hand, the results are in line with the research by García-Marín
and Salvat-Martinrey (2022), where the authors highlight that “in the Spanish context, most of the research has been carried
out since 2018, when they came the rst specic monographs on this topic were published in the magazines Profesional de
la Información and Hipertext.net.” (p. 28). ey also add that since then, “a total of 14 journals have called for special issues
related to this issue. In 2021 alone, 7 monographs were launched”, which helps to explain the peak recorded that year.
After determining the distribution of the sample’s scientic production by year and country, we examined the research areas
with which the articles appear associated. e data leaves no doubt that it is in the area of Communication that, within the
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scope of the research carried out, we found the most signicant number of articles on disinformation. If Communication is the
predominant area, we nd Information Science and Library Science, Social Sciences, Interdisciplinary, Computer Science and
Sociology among the areas that also stand out. In this context, it is important to highlight that Computer Science has been one of
the areas that has grown the most in publications on disinformation, which will undoubtedly not be unrelated to the explosion
and democratization of AI. Nevertheless, areas such as Information Science, Sociology, and although with a smaller number
of articles, the areas of Government and Law, Education and Educational Research, Environmental Sciences and Ecology, also
deserve to be highlighted. However, it is important to emphasize that as already identied in other investigations (Navarro-
Sierra et al., 2024; T
ă
taru et al., 2024), studies on disinformation have been relevant, especially in recent years, and mainly due
to the inuence of the pandemic, each increasingly the multidisciplinary approach. It is also in this sense that the collected
data point, not only because the classication of the areas itself already refers to multi-disciplinarity and inter-disciplinarity,
but above all because several articles are classied in dierent areas, which refers to an intersection of knowledge and areas of
research. Among the main intersections, we nd articles classied in the convergence between the areas of Communication
and Information Science, Communication and Education Research, and Communication and Government and Law. e
data demonstrate, similar to what has been concluded in other studies, “that disinformation is a cross-cutting problem which
aects all areas of knowledge” (Navarro-Sierra et al., 2024, p. 4).
Regarding the preferred language for publication, we found that 63% of articles use English (n=118), with only 35% being
written in Spanish (n=65). e data also allow us to understand that in the Portuguese sample, articles written in English stand
out (n=9), followed by those written in Portuguese (n=4) and nally those written in Spanish (n=3), which may result from
research work carried out jointly within the scope of collaboration networks. In the case of Spanish, there is also a preference
for English as the language for publication (n=100), followed by Spanish (n=59). In the case of articles that appeared in both
samples, the emphasis in terms of language of publication once again goes to English (n=8), with a reduced number of articles
(n=3) written in Spanish. e data are in line with other work already carried out, which highlights that “this international
vocation and the intention to achieve the widest dissemination of published results is evident in the use of English as the main
language of publication” (Navarro-Sierra et al. 2024, p. 4). On the other hand, it is important to highlight that many newspapers
now publish articles in Portuguese and English or Spanish and English. is tendency is particularly evident in the works of the
Spanish sample, where in the research itself, the titles always appear in both languages.
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Figure 2. Distribution of the number of articles by country and journal
Source: authors’ own elaboration using WOS data.
*Only journals with at least three articles
e choice of language for publication appears in most cases associated with the journal chosen to publicize the work. In this
sense, it is important to look at the journals where the works on disinformation that integrate the sample are published. e
data in Figure 2 show that authors choose a wide variety of magazines to publish their work on disinformation. Although the
vast majority of journals have only one or two works on disinformation, the journals
Profesional de la Información
,
Revista
Latina de Comunicación Social
,
Revista ICONO 14
,
Publications
, Comunicar,
Estudios Sobre el Mensaje Periodístico
, and
Revista
Mediterránea de Comunicación
stand out as those where the most works on disinformation have been published, considering
our sample. ese data are once again in line with other studies already carried out (Navarro-Sierra et al., 2024; García-Marín
& Salvat-Martinrey, 2022), where it was also highlighted that the reason for the preference for publication in English was also
due to a lot to these magazines. In this context, it is interesting to note that although the number of Spanish journals is greater
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than the others, which can be explained by the fact that many allow the publication of articles also in Portuguese, the language
that authors prefer, even in Spanish journals, it ends up being almost always English.
Another aspect that is important to highlight from the sample analysis is related to the fact that, as is the case with the research
areas, publications are identied in journals from the most varied areas, with emphasis, for example, on journals in the area
of public health, which may also be related to the peak of scientic production related to the COVID-19 pandemic. However,
this increasingly diversied publication reinforces the idea of the complexity of the phenomenon of disinformation and its
relevance for dierent areas and scientic journals.
Regarding the authorship of the works in our sample, we noticed that only a small number (n=26) have a single author, which
means that the vast majority (n=161) results from joint work by several authors. Within the scope of these collaborations,
works with two authors (n=94) stand out, followed by those with three authors (n=75), four authors (n=26) and ve authors or
more (n=13). We can also observe that in the case of data from the Portuguese sample, only three works have a single author,
showing that the authors prefer joint works, especially with four authors (n=7), two authors (n=4) or three authors (n=2).
In the case of the Spanish sample, we found a more signicant number of works carried out individually (n=23), and more
collaborations between authors, with emphasis on works with three authors (n=62) and two authors (n=42). ese data reveal
not only that there is strong collaboration between authors in studies on disinformation but also that the approaches of these
articles themselves end up being multidisciplinary, as we have already had the opportunity to see from the intersection
between research areas and journals chosen for publication.
e articles present a considerable number of authors, and we also found a distribution of works by authors; in the sample, we
did not identify a small group of authors being responsible for the majority of works. In reality, what we noticed is that in the
case of the Spanish sample, there are authors who participate in a maximum of two or three articles, with Ramón Salaverria
being the exception, as he appears in ve articles. In the case of the Portuguese sample, there is also no concentration of works
by the same authors, with only João Pedro Baptista standing out as the rst author of three articles that make up the sample.
e data are once again in line with studies already carried out (Navarro-Sierra et al., 2024), which highlight the distribution of
articles by several authors, even highlighting that “the top 25 authors on research topics related to disinformation account for
only 6% of the registered articles” (p. 5).
Regarding the authors’ aliation of the articles, it was possible to identify a great diversity of universities and institutions
in our sample. Most of the universities are Spanish, but it should also be noted the participation of researchers from foreign
institutions, reinforcing the relevance of collaborations in articles on disinformation, but above all, demonstrating that
research has assumed, in many cases, a comparative dimension between countries, in a global approach from which local and
regional nuances may escape, an aspect to which we seek to draw attention in the scope of this work. Among the universities
with the most authors and aliations, the following stand out among the Spanish ones: Rey Juan Carlos University, University
of Navarra, Complutense University of Madrid, University Carlos III of Madrid, University of Valencia. In Portugal, the
highlight goes to the University of Beira Interior. With these data, we conclude the rst part of the presentation of the results,
which mainly aims to provide a general overview, from a more bibliometric perspective, concerning the articles published on
disinformation in recent years in journals indexed in the Web of Science, and which were part of the sample.
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Next, and as we mentioned in the methodological section, we seek to analyze the articles based on their content, that is, we
intend to understand the main objects of study and methodologies adopted. In general, we can observe that the articles analyze
the dissemination of fake news and misinformation, exploring dierent aspects such as dierent forms of dissemination,
social and political impacts, combat strategies, including the role of fact-checkers and media literacy, and perceptions of
the population and communication professionals about the phenomenon. e various media outlets involved, from social
networks to newspapers and digital platforms, are analyzed, as well as demographic and ideological characteristics related to
vulnerability to disinformation.
One aspect that deserves to be highlighted in this more general analysis of the articles is related to the number of manuscripts
that address misinformation and fake news in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic. With very dierent approaches,
ranging from dissemination, impact on public health, citizens’ perception, the role of fact-checking, strategies to combat
misinformation, to the impact on political and social attitudes, the truth is that this topic arises, as in fact it has already been
identied in other studies carried out (Navarro-Sierra et al., 2024; T
ă
taru et al., 2024; Durr-Missau, 2024; Pérez-Escolar et al.,
2023), as a catalyst for studies on disinformation.
Another aspect is related to the importance of fact-checking in the context of studies on disinformation. Several articles address
the topic of fact-checking, whether as a tool to combat misinformation or as an object of study in itself. e articles explore
dierent aspects, from the methodologies used by fact-checking organizations to their impact on society and citizen trust. e
investigations thus show that fact-checking is a growing eld within academic research, with several articles emphasizing that
it cannot function as an isolated solution given the complexity of the problem of disinformation, requiring multiple approaches
that must include media literacy and strengthening journalism itself.
Among the aspects we highlight, in this general look at the articles on disinformation, the number of comparative studies
identied also stands out. Disinformation and fake news analysis is done with signicant recourse to comparison. It deserves
to be highlighted and seems essential to us because it allows for dierences and common patterns between dierent
geographical, social, and media contexts. In this context, in addition to the expected comparison regarding the disinformation
situation between Portugal and Spain, we identied the following comparisons: between European and Latin American
countries (e.g. Canavilhas & Jorge, 2022; Rodríguez- Virgili, et al., 2021; López-Marcos & Vicente-Fernández, 2021); between
European citizens and their perspectives on disinformation (e.g. Rodríguez-Pérez et al., 2024; Nygren et al., 2021); concerning
specic disinformation about the Covid-19 pandemic (e.g. Colmenero-Ruiz et al., 2023; Tarullo & Gamir-Rios, 2022; Sarelska &
Jenkins, 2022; Peña Ascacibar et al., 2021); comparisons regarding the impact of disinformation on dierent platforms such as
social networks (Facebook and Twitter), instant messaging services (such as WhatsApp) and traditional media (e.g. Pothitou
et al., 2025; Alonso-López et al., 2021); comparisons between the strategies and methodologies of dierent fact-checking
organizations (e.g. Hernández-Rodriguez et al., 2023; López-Marcos & Vicente-Fernández, 2021; Ufarte-Ruiz et al., 2020);
comparisons between media (e.g. Renedo-Farpón et al., 2022); and comparisons regarding the impact of misinformation on
demographic groups (e.g. Alonso-Muñoz et al., 2024; Colussi et al., 2024).
e number of comparative articles demonstrates the complexity of the disinformation phenomenon and the need for an
analysis that considers dierent contexts. However, despite the diversity of comparative articles and the type of comparison
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carried out between continents, countries, platforms, and demographic groups, among other aspects, we cannot fail to
emphasize that local and regional dimensions tend to be left out of these comparisons. On the other hand, it is essential to
emphasize that although comparisons between countries, for example, already refer to dierent realities and specic contexts,
this is not the understanding we have when we refer to studies on disinformation with a local or regional approach, since in
these cases, and despite the comparison, the lens is almost always oriented towards the national level. When we discuss a local
or regional focus in disinformation studies, we are highlighting research that critically examines disinformation within specic
sub-national areas. is might encompass a city, province, distinct geographical region, or even a network of interrelated
smaller communities. is focused approach allows us to uncover the unique dynamics, key players, and profound impacts
of disinformation in these dened areas. For example, a study could investigate how misleading information about a local
election proliferated through local WhatsApp groups, or how false narratives regarding a regional health crisis inuenced
communities. In contrast, when we turn our attention to comparisons between countries, we recognize the distinct realities
and national contexts each country possesses. However, the level of analysis often remains at the national scale. Such
comparisons reveal how disinformation is manifested and confronted within each nation. e emphasis frequently stays on
overarching national trends, policies, and eects, rather than probing into the nuanced variations and specic challenges
faced at local or regional levels. Consequently, a study comparing disinformation in Portugal and Spain may analyze national
media coverage, evaluate responses from national policies, or draw insights from national surveys. It typically does not delve
into the dierences between cities like Lisbon and Porto or between Madrid and Barcelona, unless it explicitly embraces a local
or regional framework within its comparative analysis. Focusing on these localized aspects is essential for truly understanding
the intricate landscape of disinformation and its implications on communities.
Finally, in this rst analysis of the content of the articles from our sample, we highlight the diversity of methodological
approaches adopted to analyze the phenomenon of disinformation, which include quantitative, qualitative and mixed studies,
with emphasis on the use of techniques such as analysis of content, surveys and interviews. Content analysis even emerges
as the most widely used methodology, being applied to dierent types of data such as fake news, fact-checking articles, and
publications on social networks and/or websites. Many articles also use surveys to collect data on citizens’ perceptions and
behaviors regarding misinformation. Interviews are also used for this purpose, although less frequently, and are mainly an
option for approaching journalists, fact-checkers and representatives of organizations. Some studies that carry out social
network analysis to study the dissemination of fake news also stand out, as well as some articles that use bibliometric analysis
to examine scientic production on disinformation, identifying trends, most inuential authors and collaboration networks;
and experimental studies that seek to evaluate the impact of certain media literacy practices.
After this more generic analysis, in this second moment, we sought to understand how many works from our sample study
disinformation at a local or regional level. We started this process with a general search in the titles, abstracts and keywords,
looking for terms such as: “local”; “regional”; “local media”; regional media”; “proximity”. rough this research, we identied
only ve articles that present, in the title and/or abstract and/or keywords, references to works on disinformation in local or
regional contexts (Table 1). We then analyzed each of these works to understand the context in which the search terms were
used and whether we are eectively dealing with articles that address misinformation at a local or regional level.
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Table 2. List of articles that refer to local or regional in the title, abstract or keywords
Complete references
Almansa-Martínez, A., Fernández-Torres, M.J., & Rodríguez-Fernández, L. (2022).
Desinformación en España un año después de la COVID-19. Análisis de las vericaciones de
Newtral y Maldita.
Revista Latina de Comunicación Social
,
80
, 183-200.
https://doi.org/10.4185/
RLCS-2022-1538
Cazzamatta, R. (2024). Global misinformation trends: Commonalities and dierences in
topics, sources of falsehoods, and deception strategies across eight countries.
New Media &
Society
, (online rst).
https://doi.org/10.1177/14614448241268896
Fernández-Barrero, Á., Rivas-de-Roca, R., & Pérez-Curiel, C. (2024). Disinformation and Local
Media in the Iberian Context: How to Protect News Credibility.
Journalism and Media
,
5
(1), 65-
77.
https://doi.org/10.3390/journalmedia5010005
Mula-Grau, J., & Cambronero-Saiz, B. (2022). Identicación de las fake news que se publican
en la edición en papel de un diario provincial en la era de la desinformación digital de Trump
y el inicio del COVID.
Vivat Academia
,
155
, 23-38.
https://doi.org/10.15178/va.2022.155.e1329
Rodríguez-Ferrándiz, R., Sánchez-Olmos, C., Hidalgo-Marí, T., & Saquete-Boro, E. (2021).
Memetics of Deception: Spreading Local Meme Hoaxes during COVID-19 1st Year.
Future
Internet
,
13
(6), 152.
https://doi.org/10.3390/13060152
Source: authors’ own elaboration
In the article by Almansa-Martínez et al. (2022), the authors propose to analyze the fake news detected by the two major fact-
checking platforms in Spain (Maldito Bulo and Newtral) during the rst year of the COVID-19 pandemic to determine the
proportion of fake news related to COVID-19 versus other topics. rough a content analysis of 255 fact-checks, the authors
conclude that the amount of COVID-19 related misinformation in Spain has decreased signicantly a year after the start of the
pandemic, with only about a quarter of detected fake news being about the pandemic, as most of the misinformation detected
was on topics unrelated to the COVID-19 pandemic, with a focus on political issues, coups and other social topics. In the case
of this article, it is part of the research carried out, mainly due to a reference made in the abstract, where it is indicated that
“almost a quarter of the hoaxes have the Spanish Government, regional governments and other institutions as protagonists”
(p. 183). erefore, no authentic approach considers disinformation at a local or regional level.
Regarding Cazzamatta (2024), the author proposes to examine the commonalities and dierences in (a) topics, (b) sources
of falsehoods, and (c) deception strategies across eight countries in Europe and Latin America. e objective is to investigate
how context and national political agendas shape misinformation patterns in these countries. After a content selection process
by identifying dierent fact-checking organizations in each country, the author analyzes a sample of 3154 fact-checks from
2022. Among the main conclusions, the author highlights that Latin American countries experience more fabricated and
decontextualized misinformation due to high social media use for news and low reliance on public media. On the other hand,
European countries are more impacted by misleading information that involves cherry-picking, exaggeration, and twisting of
facts. e article is part of our sample since the abstract mentions that “this study examines global trends in misinformation
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<p>[Enlace de URL / hc (has AS)]</p>
<p>[Enlace de URL / hc (has AS)]</p>
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and regional nuances in eight countries in Europe and Latin America”. In this case, the understanding of the concept of regional
concerns each of the countries but is far from an approach centered on local or regional means or on the misinformation that
circulates at that level.
Fernández-Barrero et al. (2024) examine the shaping of verication tasks in local media, focusing on polarized areas. e
authors propose to explore whether media professionals have a clear and shared vision of what disinformation implies and
understand how disinformation is managed in local media newsrooms by identifying the verication strategies used by local
and regional media. To achieve these objectives, the authors carried out a multiple-case study, using in-depth interviews with
journalists and managers from four local media outlets in Spain and Portugal and a thematic analysis of information about
each media outlet studied. e authors conclude that local journalists recognize misinformation as a signicant problem,
citing social media and the speed of the digital news cycle as key factors. ey further add that local media outlets rely on
their established credibility and connection to the local community to combat disinformation rather than using automated
fact-checking tools. ey indicate dierences between Spain and Portugal regarding local media’s collaboration with digital
platforms like Facebook and Google. Portuguese outlets are more likely to receive funding and support from these companies.
is article eectively focuses on studying disinformation with a place-centered approach.
Mula-Grau and Cambronero-Saiz (2022) developed a study where they asked what type of news the dierent topics related to
fake news generated. In the article, the authors seek, above all, to analyze the treatment the news makes of fake news (report,
criticism, manipulation, etc.), as well as the characteristics and treatment the news makes of the persons and/or facts related
to fake news. e authors use a mixed-methods approach combining quantitative and qualitative analyses to analyze 350
complete copies of the Diario Información newspaper published between February 3, 2020, and January 21, 2021. Among
the main conclusions, they highlight that the local newspaper published around 58 articles related to fake news over nearly a
year, averaging about one per week. On the other hand, they emphasize that most of these articles were opinion pieces rather
than hard news or investigative reports. Finally, they conclude that the newspaper took a critical stance towards fake news,
emphasizing the importance of journalistic accuracy, balance, and coherence. In the case of this article, there is no doubt
about the local approach since the authors analyze how global disinformation manifests in a local or provincial newspaper.
Finally, Rodríguez-Ferrándiz et al. (2021) propose to observe the local environment as an ideal setting for creating and
broadcasting unveried information. e authors focus on addressing the capability of local hoaxes to embrace memetic
practices and become “glocal” meme hoaxes. To achieve this objective, they rst monitored local media, fact-checking
websites, and social media to identify a sample of 35 local hoaxes related to COVID-19 in the Alicante province of Spain. In
a second moment, they focus more on a subset of 11 hoaxes identied as “meme hoaxes”. Among the main conclusions, we
highlight a signicant portion of the disinformation hoaxes exhibited memetic qualities, such as the ability to be replicated,
mutated, and adapted to local contexts. e results also suggest that local hoaxes are not limited to non-transferable local
circumstances but can also lead to the spread of other hoaxes to dierent areas, which are easily adaptable to the local context.
e local dimension is evident in this study, as it focuses on the spread of local misinformation memes during the rst year of
the pandemic.
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Although it was only in these ve articles that we found, in the title, abstract or keywords, references to terms that refer to
disinformation at a local or regional level, we looked for other articles that could somehow refer to this approach, even
without making this reference. In an analysis of the dierent articles that make up the sample, we realized that some articles
eectively address issues from a perspective that could be considered local or regional, such as the article by Cano-Orón et al.
(2019), which focuses on the analysis of campaigns for two electoral acts in Spain, or the article by Pérez-Curiel and Velasco-
Molpeceres (2020), which analyzes disinformation related to specic events in Catalonia (14-O), but from posts by national
fact-checking agencies on Twitter. ese articles are good examples of how certain topics in the eld of disinformation end up
being addressed in a logic that, in this article, we consider to be neither local nor regional, rstly because most of the objects
of study do not have this dimension, as for example in the case of Pérez-Curiel and Velasco-Molpeceres (2020) in which the
analysis of an event in a region or community ends up being done through publications from a national fact-checking agency.
e approach we nd in the articles by Rodríguez-Ferrándiz et al. (2021) or that of Fernández-Barrero et al. (2024) are good
examples of what we understand by investigations eectively focused on the study of disinformation from a local and regional
point of view, rstly because, in both cases, the object of study also has this dimension. However, it is also important to
highlight that the terms used in the research, which gave rise to the sample that served as the basis for this study, may have
contributed signicantly to the small number of articles. Other works in the Iberian context have been dedicated to studying
disinformation at a local and regional level but were not included in the sample due to the combination of search terms. We
refer, for example, to the work of Jerónimo and Esparza (2023), who, through interviews with journalists from twelve regional
media outlets in Portugal and Spain, seek to analyze perceptions and practices regarding fact-checking; or the work of Alcaide-
Pulido (2023) focused on helping local journalists combat disinformation; we also talk about the work of Torre and Jerónimo
(2023), who focus the discussion on the importance of the local public sphere as a way of combating local disinformation; or
even the work of Rúas-Araújo et al. (2023), focused on understanding how local media newsrooms deal with misinformation.
ese are just a few examples that help to demonstrate, on the one hand, the limitations of this research, which will also be
explored in the next point, but also the reason why we consider that a large part of the studies on disinformation do not have
the local and regional dimension as a concern.
5. Final considerations
e digital era has changed how information is shared and consumed, allowing disinformation to circulate rapidly and
widely. As societies confront the impacts of this widespread problem, it’s clear that disinformation is not uniform, as it varies
signicantly across dierent regions and communities. e variety in how disinformation is expressed requires a nuanced
understanding of the issue and calls for an academic investigation that considers disinformation expressions at the local and
regional levels. is article explores academic research on disinformation, focusing on recent studies conducted in Portugal
and Spain. By analyzing how these research eorts mirror the local realities of disinformation, we aim to identify potential gaps
in existing research and highlight the need for dierent approaches that enhance the theoretical discussion on disinformation
and oer valuable insights for eective interventions at both regional and local levels.
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rough the analysis, we realized that in our sample of academic publications from Portugal and Spain, disinformation is
mainly framed as a growing and multifaceted problem that aects contemporary democratic societies. e articles explore
several dimensions, emphasizing the impact and consequences of disinformation, the sources and channels of disseminating
false content, the types and characteristics of disinformation, the responses and strategies to combat this problem, the role of
journalists and the media, and vulnerability to misinformation. It is also important to highlight that in the articles covering the
period from 2019 to 2025, the Covid-19 pandemic still has a great relevance. In short, and answering the rst research question
(RQ1), we can say that the articles characterize disinformation as a complex problem with several dimensions, which aect
trust in the media, political institutions, and public health, highlighting the need for a multifaceted approach to combating
misinformation, which should involve education, fact-checking, legislation and promoting transparency.
On the other hand, and considering the main focus of this work, we realized, through the analysis of the articles from the
sample, that regional and local dimensions of disinformation are little addressed. We detected fewer direct references to
this approach. In other cases, although the investigations may address regional contexts, the chosen objects of study are
always national or global. us, and answering the second research question (RQ2), the study reveals critical gaps in existing
literature, particularly in how local and regional realities are considered in the study of disinformation. Addressing these gaps
is essential for developing more eective strategies to combat disinformation. By aligning academic research more closely with
local and regional realities, scholars can provide more valuable insights that inform policy-making and practical interventions
tailored to specic communities aected by disinformation. e advocacy for a multifaceted understanding of disinformation
highlights the complexity of the issue and the importance of interdisciplinary approaches in addressing it holistically. On
the other hand, enhancing collaboration between researchers, local communities, and policymakers can facilitate a more
nuanced understanding of disinformation and lead to more robust solutions tailored to specic contexts. Finally, considering
what methodologies have been predominantly used in the examination of disinformation in the academic articles analyzed
and how these methodologies shape ndings (RQ3), the results show that the articles prioritize content analysis, surveys
and interviews, leaving out, for example, case studies, which allowed many local and regional realities to be accounted for.
erefore, there is a pressing need for more localized research methodologies that account for the unique socio-cultural
dynamics of local and regional communities. is approach will enrich theoretical frameworks and enhance the relevance of
ndings to practitioners working on the ground.
e current lack of scientic publications examining disinformation in local and regional contexts highlights a critical gap
in our understanding. However, this shortfall also oers a valuable opportunity to push for focused research that reveals
the vulnerabilities and dynamics of disinformation at these levels. By emphasizing this knowledge gap, we can encourage
policymakers to craft context-specic strategies, allocate funding for local research initiatives, and advocate for tailored
approaches to combat harmful narratives. Additionally, this scarcity of relevant scientic literature can inspire and energize
local media and media literacy campaigns. Local media have the potential to act as investigators, fostering trust by tackling
disinformation in their communities. Media literacy programs should highlight essential skills applicable to any setting while
also promoting and developing educational eorts that are specically designed for local contexts. In conclusion, the limited
local research emphasizes the need for its development and highlights the importance of empowering local stakeholders to
comprehend and mitigate the eects of disinformation in their unique environments.
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In this context, it is easy to anticipate future recommendations, which necessarily involve understanding how this phenomenon
manifests itself and specically impacts smaller geographic contexts closer to the citizen. is need arises because local news
sources enjoy greater credibility with the public than national media outlets. ere are limited resources in local media for
fact-checking. However, these contexts also have very particular vulnerabilities that cannot be combated appropriately if not
studied. On the other hand, it is necessary to understand whether local journalists need specic training in fact-checking
to combat disinformation and full their role in society. Research can contribute to identifying best practices and training
needs for these professionals. Finally, studies are needed to consider how quickly misinformation adapts to local issues, using
community-specic themes and concerns to spread eectively. By studying local disinformation, it is possible to identify and
understand how these dynamics work and develop more eective countermeasures. In short, studies at the local level are
essential to understand the nuances of disinformation, to empower local media outlets and to develop eective strategies
adapted to the reality of each community.
Although we consider the study necessary, we are aware of its limitations, which involve not all research outputs being
indexed in bibliographic databases, leading to data gaps and skewed results. Dierent databases also have varying coverage
across disciplines and publication types. In line with what happens in other bibliometric scientic articles, and although they
oer valuable insights into research trends, citations, and the impact of publication, in this work, we also recognize that the
results are limited by the availability and quality of data from bibliographic databases, and in the particular case of articles
on disinformation at local and regional level, we know that there are articles that have this approach but that are not indexed
in major databases. On the other hand, it is also essential to consider that research, expressed through scientic articles,
often has a time lag, meaning there may already be research on the subject. Still, it has not yet been published, especially if
we consider each time there will be a longer delay in article evaluation processes. We must also consider as limitations the
fact that searches in databases are dependent on algorithms, which sometimes may not accurately reect the complexity of
research impact and collaboration patterns. Finally, by focusing on scientic articles, and although these are some of the most
important elements from the point of view of science dissemination, we leave out other forms of scientic expression, such
as projects, books, datasets, and policy briefs that can also contribute signicantly to a eld. Recognizing these limitations
is essential to understand that the work carried out, despite oering signicant contributions, has room for improvement,
especially considering the urgency of combating disinformation at the local and regional levels.
6. Acknowledgements
is article has been translated into English by Sophie Phillips to whom we are grateful for her work.
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7. Specic contributions of each author
Name and Surname
Conception and design of the work
Ricardo Morais and Valeriano Piñeiro-Naval
Methodology
Ricardo Morais and Valeriano Piñeiro-Naval
Data collection and analysis
Ricardo Morais and Valeriano Piñeiro-Naval
Discussion and conclusions
Ricardo Morais
Drafting, formatting, version review and approval
Ricardo Morais and Valeriano Piñeiro-Naval
8. Conict of interest
e authors declare that there is no conict of interest contained in this article.
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