Disinformation and media and information literacy: Perspectives of
young communicators in Mexico, Chile and Uruguay
Desinformación y alfabetización mediática e informacional: Perspectivas de
jóvenes comunicadores en México, Chile y Uruguay
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| 373
July-December of 2026
ISSN: 1696-019X / e-ISSN: 2386-3978
How to cite this article:
de-Casas-Moreno, P.; Rojas-Estrada, E. G. and Aguaded, I. (2026). Disinformation and media and information literacy: Perspectives of young
communicators in Mexico, Chile and Uruguay.
Doxa Comunicación
, 43, pp. 373-394.
https//doi.org/10.31921/doxacom.3089
Patricia de-Casas-Moreno.
Full professor at the Faculty of Documentation and Communication Sciences, University
of Extremadura. PhD in Communication, specialising in media literacy. Member of Grupo Comunicar, a long-standing
collective in Spain specialising in media literacy. She has been Associate Editor of the scientic journal Comunicar,
one of the leading international publications in education and communication (indexed in JCR-Q1, Scopus-Q1, top
1% worldwide, etc.). Member of the Alfamed Network and member of the Spanish Association for Communication
Research (AE-IC). Researcher with the Edutransforma-T research group at the University of Extremadura. Her main
areas of research focus on media literacy, the media and narratives
.
University of Extremadura, Spain
[email protected]
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1205-8106
Elizabeth-Guadalupe Rojas-Estrada.
Professor at Antonio de Nebrija University. She holds a PhD in Communication
from the University of Huelva (UHU) and a Master’s degree in Communication from the Pontical Catholic University
of Valparaíso. She is a member of the Ágora Research Group (HUM-648) at UHU and serves as President of the Alfamed
Joven Network, where she promotes research and training initiatives in Media and Information Literacy (MIL). In the
eld of educational management, she has served as coordinator of academic projects in basic education at the Ministry
of Public Education in Baja California Sur, as well as director of Teaching Innovation and Support Centres. She has
collaborated in international teacher training projects on MIL in countries such as the Dominican Republic, Ecuador,
Paraguay and Uruguay. Her work focuses on the analysis and development of public policies related to MIL, with
particular attention to its integration into education systems.
Nebrija University, Spain
[email protected]
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4104-5830
is content is published under Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial License. International License CC BY-NC 4.0
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1. Introduction
French, Storey and Wallace (2023) point out that disinformation, dened as the deliberate dissemination of fake news
(information fabricated to deceive or misinform), undermines trust in the media and institutions. is research further argues
that this leads to tangible and harmful consequences, such as disturbances to public order or erroneous decisions that even
aect public health. For Lim
et al.
(2024), the spread of this type of content is not a recent phenomenon, although they do
consider that social media plays a crucial role in accelerating it due to the inherent characteristics of these platforms, which
Ignacio Aguaded.
Full professor in the Department of Education at the University of Huelva (Spain). President of Grupo
Comunicar, a long-standing organisation in Spain specialising in educommunication, and Editor-in-Chief for 30 years
(1993–2023) of the scientic journal ‘
Comunicar
’ (JCR top 1% worldwide, ranked 1st globally in Scopus). He is Principal
Investigator (PI) of the ‘Ágora’ Research Group, with numerous national and international research projects. He has
supervised hundreds of research projects and 55 doctoral theses. He is Director of the International Inter-University
Master’s Degree in Communication and Audiovisual Education (UNIA/UHU) and Coordinator of the Inter-University
Doctoral Programme in Communication (US, UMA, UCA and UHU). Founding President of the ‘Alfamed’ Euro-
American International Network of Researchers, comprising 24 countries. Winner of the University of Huelva’s 2015
Best Researcher Award in Social Sciences. He served as Vice-Chancellor for Technology, Innovation and Quality at the
University of Huelva for over seven years.
University of Huelva, Spain
[email protected]
ORCID
: 0000-0002-0229-1118
Recibido: 07/09/2025 - Aceptado: 25/05/2026 - En edición: 09/06/2026 - Publicado: 01/07/2026
Resumen:
La desinformación en la era digital representa un desafío crucial para
los comunicadores y periodistas en formación, quienes desempeñan un
rol estratégico en la garantía del derecho ciudadano a una información
veraz y contrastada. Este estudio cualitativo analiza las percepciones y
experiencias de jóvenes estudiantes de comunicación y periodismo en
México, Chile y Uruguay respecto a la inuencia de las noticias falsas
en sus hábitos informativos, y sitúa el análisis en el marco de la digi
-
talización, las redes sociales y el papel de la Alfabetización Mediática
e Informacional (AMI) en la comprensión crítica de la información. A
partir de grupos focales con 36 estudiantes de los tres países, los resulta
-
dos evidencian la necesidad urgente de incorporar la AMI en los planes
de estudio de esta carrera, promoviendo un prosumo crítico de los con
-
tenidos. Como parte de este proceso, se cocreó un decálogo de buenas
prácticas dirigido a comunicadores, concebido como una herramienta
formativa y orientadora para mitigar la desinformación.
Palabras clave:
Desinformación; contexto digital; alfabetización mediática e
informacional; redes sociales; jóvenes.
Received: 07/09/2025 - Accepted: 25/05/2026 - Early access: 09/06/2026 - Published: 01/07/2026
Abstract:
Disinformation in the digital age represents a crucial challenge for
communication and journalism students, who play a strategic role in
safeguarding citizens’ right to accurate and veried information. is
qualitative study investigates the perspectives of Mexican, Chilean,
and Uruguayan journalism students concerning the repercussions of
disinformation on their news habits. e study contextualizes these
experiences within an increasingly digitized landscape, underscoring
Media and Information Literacy (MIL) as an essential vehicle for
critical comprehension. Based on focus groups conducted with 36
students across the three countries, the ndings highlight the urgent
need to incorporate MIL into university curricula in this eld, fostering
a critical approach to the consumption and production of content.
As part of this process, a set of ten best practices for communicators
was co-created, conceived as both an educational and guiding tool to
mitigate the eects of disinformation.
Keywords:
Disinformation; digital context; media and information literacy; social
networks; young people.
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allow, for example, content to be shared instantly and reach massive audiences in a matter of minutes without undergoing
a rigorous verication process. García-Marín
et al.
(2022) reinforce this view by pointing out that algorithms, designed to
prioritise content that generates the most engagement, amplify the circulation of news that is not always accurate. Furthermore,
they note that social media tends to create echo chambers in which users are primarily exposed to information that conrms
their pre-existing beliefs.
According to Arora
et al.
(2024), exposure to disinformation tends to trigger negative emotional responses, such as anxiety and
stress, demonstrating that this phenomenon aects not only cognition but also people’s emotional well-being. Furthermore,
research by Narváez-Llinares and Pérez-Rufí (2022) highlights that fake news not only fosters social polarisation around
serious issues, but also reinforces stereotypes and promotes hostile attitudes towards vulnerable groups such as migrants.
e analysis by Elizalde-Robles and Rodríguez-Hidalgo (2021) highlights the particular vulnerability young people face
with regard to disinformation, resulting both from their high exposure to digital content and from insucient training to
critically evaluate the information they consume. Recent studies in Latin America also show that, although many young people
tend to perceive that disinformation mainly aects others and not themselves, they express signicant concern regarding
its consequences (Rodríguez-Pérez
et al.
, 2022; Pereyra and Cane, 2024). In this vein, Herrero-Curiel and La-Rosa (2022)
emphasise that Media and Information Literacy (MIL) constitutes an essential educational mechanism for strengthening the
necessary skills to mitigate the eects of disinformation on this age group.
Whilst the literature warns of young people’s general vulnerability to disinformation, it is worth focusing the analysis on those
who will act as social mediators of information. Communication and journalism students are not only active prosumers,
but their technical training should provide them with a specialised perspective to identify the mechanisms of fake news and
propose solutions based on professional practice (Muñoz-Uribe, 2021). Based on this premise, the aim of this research is to
identify the perceptions and experiences of these future professionals in Mexico, Chile and Uruguay regarding the inuence
of fake news on their information-seeking habits. e study situates the analysis within the framework of digitalisation, social
media and the role of media literacy in the critical understanding of information, using a focus group methodology. Based
on this analysis, the aim is to design strategies aimed at promoting a more informed, critical and truthful consumption of
information.
1.1. Media and Information Literacy as an educational response to the challenges of disinformation
In Latin America, no specic legislation has yet been passed to combat disinformation, although some countries, such as Chile,
already have draft bills moving in that direction (Fontela-Pedreira, 2024). However, beyond the regulatory responses driven
by governments, Sádaba-Chalezquer and Salaverría-Aliaga (2023) warn that it is essential to incorporate media literacy into
education systems as an integral part of strategies against disinformation, as it is a key mechanism for empowering citizens
and promoting their shared responsibility in this area, thereby moving beyond approaches focused exclusively on technical or
legal solutions. In the same vein, the authors highlight the need to understand contemporary phenomena and concepts such
as infoxication, which refers to the information overload present in digital environments. In an ecosystem where the volume
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of information exceeds the capacity for individual analysis, particularly among the youngest members of society, there is
simultaneously a perceived decline in cognitive lters, facilitating the circulation of disinformation (López-Veneroni, 2021).
By promoting critical thinking, MIL empowers citizens to manage the information they consume eectively, which involves
being able to: a) question the credibility of sources; b) identify bias in content and distinguish between veriable facts, subjective
opinions and propaganda; c) verify information by cross-checking it against reliable sources and using verication tools,
such as fact-checking websites or academic databases; and d) recognise typical features of fake news, such as sensationalist
headlines (Valverde-Berrocoso
et al.
, 2022). However, the emergence of Generative Articial Intelligence (GAI) following the
popularisation of tools such as ChatGPT or DALL·E has amplied the challenges in this area. According to Floridi (2024), these
technologies exacerbate the spread of disinformation by enabling the automated production of fake content with an extremely
realistic appearance. Against this backdrop, Garriga
et al.
(2024) argue that MIL also plays a crucial role in empowering citizens
to understand that AI can be used both in the creation of disinformation content, such as deepfakes (videos, audio or images
manipulated using AI technology), and in the ght against the spread of disinformation. To this end, advanced verication
tools and monitoring programmes capable of identifying patterns are employed.
is educational model also promotes emotional resilience and helps prevent the hasty dissemination of information
driven by emotions such as fear or outrage (Lau
et al.
, 2024). In this way, it not only strengthens the ability to make informed
decisions, but also helps to mitigate the impact of fake news on people’s behaviour, particularly in critical contexts such as
substance use (Austin
et al.
, 2023). Furthermore, it encourages the active and responsible participation of individuals in
public debate, promoting a balance between freedom of expression and digital responsibility, as well as the formation of well-
founded opinions and respect for diverse perspectives, principles that are essential for the proper functioning of a democracy
(Buckingham, 2019).
e questionnaire administered by Catalina-García
et al.
(2019) to communication students at universities in Brazil, Portugal
and Spain explored both news consumption patterns and perceptions of fake news. e results showed that all groups
shared a common concern about the negative eects of fake news; however, there are signicant limitations in their ability
to identify false information eectively. Complementarily, a more recent study by Pereyra and Cane (2024), conducted
among communication and journalism students from nine Latin American countries (including Chile, Mexico and Uruguay),
showed that they consider the skills acquired during their academic training to contribute only partially to addressing this
phenomenon. It is also suggested that this educational gap is linked to the limited inclusion in the curriculum of conceptual
and methodological tools that enable students to critically address the new challenges of this century.
Against this backdrop, this study examines these three national contexts which, although diverse in their social and political
structures, share signicant similarities in their media ecosystems. Mexico, Chile and Uruguay represent strategic hubs in Latin
America, with internet penetration rates already exceeding 80% (World Bank, 2024). Furthermore, there is a reported growing
reliance on social media as the primary source of information among young people in the region (Reuters Institute, 2023).
Despite this high level of digitalisation, the response from communication faculties in these countries has been mixed.
According to Muñoz-Uribe’s doctoral thesis (2021), whilst Uruguay and Chile have seen a consolidation of critical approaches to
technology and journalistic ethics in digital environments, in Mexico, the focus is often marked by the urgency of fact-checking
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in the face of a highly polarised environment and risks to the practice of journalism. Despite these particularities, the three
countries share a common shortcoming: the lack of systematic training in media and algorithmic literacy, as well as in
advanced fact-checking mechanisms within undergraduate curricula. is training gap highlights the need to prepare future
communication professionals to confront and counteract disinformation. Furthermore, it ensures that their journalistic work
is grounded in accuracy, ethics and social responsibility –key elements for maintaining trust in the practice of communication
and journalism (Martín
et al.
, 2024).
2. Method
is research aims to identify the perceptions and experiences of communication students in Mexico, Chile and Uruguay
regarding the inuence of fake news on their information-seeking habits, within the context of digitalisation, the intensive
use of social media and the role of media literacy in the critical understanding of information. To achieve this objective, a
qualitative methodology has been adopted, based on the use of focus groups as a research technique.
e choice of this qualitative approach responds to the need to delve deeper into young people’s perceptions and experiences
and provides a detailed understanding of their attitudes and beliefs (Bautista, 2022). is type of approach will enable the
analysis of the underlying motivations, as well as the subjective aspects, that inuence their information habits. Furthermore,
this methodology will facilitate the identication of specic training needs to promote media literacy against disinformation
in this new technology-driven ecosystem.
With regard to the data collection technique, the focus group is based on the principle of the social construction of knowledge,
as the exchange of experiences among participants generates collective knowledge (Juan and Roussos, 2010). A semi-structured
guide was designed to stimulate discussion, comprising open-ended questions that encourage the exploration of participants’
perceptions and experiences (Table 1). e instrument was structured around four dimensions: a) the impact of fake news
on the public; b) understanding of the concept of disinformation; c) the public’s critical reection on news consumption;
and d) fact-checking and knowledge of the concept of MIL. Although the script maintained a basic structure across the three
countries, the questions were phrased openly to facilitate in-depth discussion and the emergence of new categories.
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Table 1. Question guide by dimension
DimensionScope
e impact of fake news on the public
- How do you keep up to date with current aairs?
- Are you familiar with the term “fake news”? Could you dene it or mention some
of its characteristics? Can you give an example of fake news that you’ve come
across?
- Why do you think fake news is created and spread? Do you think that in some
cases it might be to discredit something or someone?
- What eects do you think fake news has on society? Do you think it leads to
widespread misinformation?
- If you’ve ever come across a piece of fake news, have you shared it without
realising? What consequences might that have?
Understanding the concept of
disinformation
- What is disinformation? How would you dene it?
- Do you think society is becoming increasingly misinformed?
- What tools, sources or techniques do you use to ensure that the information you
consume is reliable?
Critical reection by the public on news
consumption
- What channels do you usually use to get your news?
- Do you prefer to get your news from traditional media or from social media,
including other people’s comments and posts?
- When you read a news story on social media, how do you check whether it’s true?
- If you’ve ever spotted a fake news story, what signs made you suspect it was false?
- Do you think citizen journalism is reliable?
Verication of information and
understanding of the concept of MIL
- What do you understand by media and information literacy?
- What strategies or solutions would you suggest to reduce the spread of fake news,
particularly on social media?
- Do you think it is important to educate people on how to consume information
via ICT?
- What techniques would you use or recommend to check whether a news story is
true or false?
Source: Compiled by the author.
With regard to the sample design, a non-probabilistic, purposive quota sampling method was used, based on criteria of gender,
country and academic prole: a) young people aged between 19 and 25; and b) students studying Communication and/or
Journalism at the Benemérita Universidad Autónoma de Puebla (Mexico), the Ponticia Universidad Católica de Valparaíso
(Chile) and the Universidad Católica del Uruguay. Based on these criteria, six focus groups (two per country) were conducted
via synchronous online sessions using Zoom, each lasting approximately 90 minutes, between May 2024 and April 2025. e
groups consisted of between ve and seven participants. e sample comprised a total of 36 university students (11 from Chile,
13 from Mexico and 12 from Uruguay) with an equal gender distribution (18 men and 18 women). eoretical saturation was
assessed progressively after each focus group, through a comparative review of the emerging categories. It was considered
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to have been reached when the discourses began to show thematic redundancy, with no incorporation of new substantive
categories or signicant variations in the identied interpretative patterns.
As an extension of the study’s participatory approach, a co-creation session was incorporated at the end of each focus group.
In response to the question: “Based on what we have discussed so far, what do you think are the most important actions that
communication professionals should take to identify and stop the spread of fake news?”, participants collectively prioritised
strategies using a qualitative consensus technique. Each group debated and ranked their proposals and, furthermore, agreed
on ten guidelines. ese proposals were coded thematically and linked to the categories emerging from the content analysis,
forming a proactive dimension of the study. Subsequently, a nal set of ten guidelines was synthesised, the validity of which
was conrmed through independent review and interpretative cross-checking amongst the researchers.
e sessions were recorded and transcribed in full for qualitative content analysis using an inductive approach (Guix, 2008).
For data processing, a dimensional analysis matrix in Excel was used, which enabled the units of meaning to be organised
and tabulated systematically. e process combined open coding, through which emerging categories were identied from
the discourse, with axial coding, which facilitated the establishment of relationships between these categories and their
articulation with the initial guiding dimensions. Credibility and auditability were reinforced through researcher triangulation,
with independent interpretative checks and the resolution of discrepancies through consensual discussion.
As the study did not involve any clinical intervention or procedures posing a risk to participants, it was not submitted for review
by a formal ethics committee. However, the protocol was designed and conducted in accordance with the ethical principles of
the Declaration of Helsinki. Data collection was conducted anonymously, in accordance with the Personal Data Protection Act
(Organic Law 3/2018, 2018). Informed consent was obtained from all participants, who were briefed on the study’s objectives,
procedures and risk-free nature, as well as on the voluntary nature of their participation and the possibility of withdrawing
without repercussions. To ensure anonymity, the testimonies were coded using alphanumeric labels relating to gender/age/
country (e.g. M/20/MEX, F/19/CHI). To this end, any trace of personal identication was removed. e protocol for storing
the recordings and transcripts involved using restricted-access folders to ensure the secure custody of the information and its
exclusive use for scientic purposes.
3. Results
3.1. Qualitative analysis
e results obtained are presented below, organised according to the relevant dimensions of the study and the items analysed.
is will allow for a detailed and structured examination of the most signicant ndings. It should be noted that the quotations
included in the gures have been selected for their representativeness of the predominant discourses identied during data
collection, rather than as isolated examples, following criteria of thematic recurrence and qualitative saturation.
Impact of fake news on the public. e rst dimension focuses on an in-depth analysis of the impact of fake news, as well
as assessing its eect on public perception and its consequences in various spheres, both social and communicative. In this
regard, the selected sample indicates that, as future communicators and active news consumers, they keep up to date with
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current aairs. Consistently across the dierent groups, participants describe information-gathering routines characterised
by frequent use of social media as the main channel for accessing current aairs.
When asked how they stay informed or which tools they use to access quality information, the groups in Mexico and Chile
indicate that Twitter –now known as X– is the most widely used platform among the wide range of social media networks.
In Uruguay, however, they mention that TikTok plays a predominant role as a source of information, reecting dierences
in the dynamics of information consumption across the various countries. ese dierences are evident in the discourse of
the groups analysed in each country, with a comparable qualitative design in terms of the number of groups and participant
proles, allowing for the interpretation of these variations. Furthermore, this preference may conrm that, in this context,
there is high demand for internet access and extensive use of mobile networks amongst the younger generation. Undoubtedly,
this type of platform has become a dominant channel for information exchange and conrms the regional trend towards the
mediatisation of everyday life, where young people integrate news consumption through hybrid digital environments that
combine entertainment with information a dynamic already highlighted by the Digital News Report 2023 (Reuters Institute,
2023), which analyses six Latin American countries.
On a dierent note, although traditional media have also been mentioned, podcasts generate more interest among this
demographic, as they oer a quick and dynamic way to keep up to date with the news. Similarly, Google News and digital
media are practical tools for staying informed. However, national and international media have been mentioned in a negative
light, as young people prefer to focus on regional or, failing that, local news. From a Latin American perspective, this tendency
towards media mistrust is linked to young people’s perception of traditional national media, which they believe is inuenced
by political or economic interests, a perception that has also been documented in the research by Labarca
et al.
(2022).
With regard to the concept of fake news, most participants conrmed that they were familiar with the term, dening it as
“unveried and untrue information that is disseminated with the intention of discrediting an institution or, in some cases, to
attract more views”. is denition recurred across the three countries analysed, suggesting a shared conceptual framework
amongst the students, albeit with some nuances. e responses analysed are linked to strategies such as clickbait, using
sensationalist headlines to increase the number of views. Young people conrm that unveried content is spread virally via
entertainment and social media platforms and that, even as future communication professionals, they fall into these traps of
disinformation and fake news. For example, well-known cases that have come to the fore in relation to this issue include the
fake news spread during the Covid-19 pandemic and that relating to the armed conict between Russia and Ukraine.
When asked about the reasons behind the spread of this type of fake news, the response is unanimous: nancial gain, views and
clicks. Furthermore, in the case of the group from Chile, the media outlet’s editorial line and political stance were highlighted,
whilst the young people from Uruguay believe that this is driven by manipulation from the political and/or economic sphere
seeking to prot from it. Similarly, some participants mentioned the lack of regulation and control on digital platforms, the
speed at which unveried information spreads, and social polarisation as factors contributing to the mass circulation of
disinformation.
From another perspective, participants point out that older people are the most likely to fall for fake news as they are less familiar
with electronic devices and lack the necessary training to identify and deal with false information appropriately. However,
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they also reect on how their own generation is not immune to this phenomenon: although they consider themselves more
adept at using technology, they admit that they often do not go to great lengths to verify sources or cross-check information
before sharing it (Figure 1). e comments gathered in this rst gure reveal an ambivalent self-perception; participants
simultaneously acknowledge technical skills and limitations in systematic verication. is pattern of discourse is repeated
across several groups and reinforces its analytical relevance. Regarding the spread of fake news, two young Mexicans indicated
that, although they are aware that spreading false information can have negative consequences and is unethical, they admit
that immediacy and a lack of time to cross-check sources often play a decisive role. is argument also appears, with variations
in discourse, among participants from Chile and Uruguay, and points to a cross-cutting factor associated with audiovisual
consumption habits.
Figure 1. Dimension 1. Impact of fake news on the public
From another perspective, participants point out that older people are the most likely to fall for
fake news as they are less familiar with electronic devices and lack the necessary training to
identify and deal with false information appropriately. However, they also reflect on how their
own generation is not immune to this phenomenon: although they consider themselves more
adept at using technology, they admit that they often do not go to great lengths to verify sources
or cross
-
check information before sharing it (Figure 1). The comments gathered in this first
figure reveal an ambivalent self
-
perception; participants simultaneously acknowledge
technical skills and limitations in systematic verification. This pattern of discourse is repeated
across several groups and reinforces its analytical relevance. Regarding the spread of fake
news, two young Mexicans indicated that, although they are aware that spreading false
information can have negative consequences and is unethical, they admit that immediacy and
a
lack of time to cross
-
check sources often play a decisive role. This argument also appears,
with variations in discourse, among participants from Chile and Uruguay, and points to a cross
-
cutting factor associated with audiovisual consumption habits.
Figure 1. Dimension 1. Impact of fake news on the public
Source: Compiled by the author.
Understanding the concept of disinformation.
The second
dimension
of understanding the
concept of disinformation and its application is analysed from the perspective of the term’s
definition. In this regard, the sample indicates that, despite being closely linked to fake news,
this strategy is used in areas of public interest such as politics, science, health and the
environment. Consequently, it has a significant impact on public opinion and social behaviour.
Source: Compiled by the author
Understanding the concept of disinformation.
e second dimension of understanding the concept of disinformation and
its application is analysed from the perspective of the term’s denition. In this regard, the sample indicates that, despite
being closely linked to fake news, this strategy is used in areas of public interest such as politics, science, health and the
environment. Consequently, it has a signicant impact on public opinion and social behaviour. With regard to the concept,
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some students dene it as “empty”, “manipulated” or “incomplete” information, alluding to a lack of interest in quality news.
is link between disinformation and matters of public interest in the Latin American context inuences the ways in which
young people position themselves as citizens in the face of the circulation of fake news. In contexts such as Chile or Mexico,
where political processes are characterised by turmoil and controversy, media coverage has been marked by polarisation and
a crisis of institutional credibility. As a result, young people state that disinformation directly aects their civic participation,
as it limits their ability to make informed decisions and causes them to feel “apathy” or “disinterest”.
In a related vein, the focus group in Chile discussed how, with the expansion of social media and increasing user accessibility,
anyone can create and disseminate content, particularly in a context where articial intelligence is playing an increasingly
signicant role in the eld of communication. In light of the rapid and largely unregulated growth of digital platforms and
resources, two students emphasised the need to foster a culture of media literacy that promotes the critical and conscious
consumption of content. In this regard, they highlighted that this task falls particularly on communication professionals, who
bear the primary responsibility for ensuring accurate and high-quality information. is expectation regarding the ethical
role of the communicator is part of the growing demands of young Latin Americans (Luna-Muñoz, 2022), who demand
critical citizenship and, at the same time, call for transparency, rigour and accountability in the circulation of information, as
exemplied by the #YoSoy132 movement in Mexico, which emerged during the 2012 presidential elections, led by university
students to denounce the lack of plurality and objectivity in the media.
With regard to verication techniques, some participants stated that they compare dierent media outlets to cross-check the
news. Furthermore, some young Chileans mentioned the use of specic digital tools, such as reverse image search engines, to
verify authenticity. However, there is clear evidence of an urgent need to introduce changes to the educational curriculum, as a
weakness is apparent: future professionals in communication and journalism lack the skills and knowledge required to tackle
disinformation and, consequently, the fake news disseminated across various channels (Figure 2). e statements gathered in
this gure reveal perceptions of information overload, specic verication strategies and reections on the chain circulation
of unveried content. Rather than being interpreted as a widespread shortcoming, these ndings suggest the coexistence of
nascent verication practices alongside information routines characterised by media overexposure.
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Figure 2. Dimension 2. Understanding the concept of disinformation
Source: Compiled by the author.
Critical reflection by the public on news consumption.
In this regard, participants state that they
do not believe a piece of information to be true unless it is published by a verified media outlet.
Furthermore, they seek to establish criteria for news consumption by reading or watching
reports by specialist journalists. For their part, the selected sample shows that, in general, they
are able to identify fake news, and among the most frequently cited responses in this regard,
they highlight that headlines, the way the news is presented, or the outlet in which it is
published enable
s
them to recognise signs of what might be fake news. Similarly, they state
that they pay attention to the author of the news, establishing a significant criterion based on
whether the author is an expert in the field of communication, a news agency or, conversely,
what is known in journalistic jargon as a
“
figurehead expert
”
. Added to this is the fact that,
increasingly, the use of artificial intelligence is creating a significant divide within the
journalism profession through the automated generation of content, which leads to a loss of
quality and journalistic rigour
.
Following this line of argument, the concept of citizen journalism as a reliable source of
information comes under scrutiny. This practice, which has emerged as an alternative for the
production and circulation of information, promotes media democratisation; however, it also
gives rise to risks linked to a lack of professional training, the absence of rigorous verification
processes, and the potential influence of individual biases (Horoub, 2023). Nevertheless, young
Mexicans recognised its strengths: immediacy, accessibility, local coverage, a diversity of
voices and direct interaction with the audience. These positive assessments of citizen
Source: Compiled by the author
Critical reection by the public on news consumption.
In this regard, participants state that they do not believe a piece of
information to be true unless it is published by a veried media outlet. Furthermore, they seek to establish criteria for news
consumption by reading or watching reports by specialist journalists. For their part, the selected sample shows that, in general,
they are able to identify fake news, and among the most frequently cited responses in this regard, they highlight that headlines,
the way the news is presented, or the outlet in which it is published enables them to recognise signs of what might be fake news.
Similarly, they state that they pay attention to the author of the news, establishing a signicant criterion based on whether the
author is an expert in the eld of communication, a news agency or, conversely, what is known in journalistic jargon as a
“gurehead expert”. Added to this is the fact that, increasingly, the use of articial intelligence is creating a signicant divide
within the journalism profession through the automated generation of content, which leads to a loss of quality and journalistic
rigour
.
Following this line of argument, the concept of citizen journalism as a reliable source of information comes under scrutiny.
is practice, which has emerged as an alternative for the production and circulation of information, promotes media
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democratisation; however, it also gives rise to risks linked to a lack of professional training, the absence of rigorous verication
processes, and the potential inuence of individual biases (Horoub, 2023). Nevertheless, young Mexicans recognised its
strengths: immediacy, accessibility, local coverage, a diversity of voices and direct interaction with the audience. ese
positive assessments of citizen journalism are found mainly in Mexico, whilst in Chile more cautious views regarding reliability
predominate, and in Uruguay intermediate positions are observed. is distribution of views is interpreted in an exploratory
manner, given the qualitative nature of the study design. is democratises access to information and broadens the diversity
of perspectives, although, according to two young Chileans, it also increases the risk of misinformation and the spread of
fake news due to a lack of rigour and verication (Figure 3). e quotes in this gure illustrate a tension between openness of
information and concerns about verication, a theme that emerged repeatedly in the focus groups. is perception reects
the documented tensions in the region between young people’s digital empowerment and the precariousness linked to the
structural conditions that guarantee access to veried and reliable information (Dorado, 2024). In the Latin American context,
technological access does not always translate into critical literacy. is leads to re-signied uses, where young people employ
platforms as tools for expression, albeit without the appropriate frameworks to assess the quality of content.
Figure 3. Dimension 3. Citizens’ critical reection on news consumption
journalism are found mainly in Mexico, whilst in Chile more cautious views regarding
reliability predominate, and in Uruguay intermediate positions are observed. This distribution
of views is interpreted in an exploratory manner, given the qualitative nature of the study
design. This democratises access to information and broadens the diversity of perspectives,
although, according to two young Chileans, it also increases the risk of misinformation and the
spread of fake news due to a lack of rigour and verification (Figure 3). The quotes in this figure
illustrate a tension between openness of information and concerns about verification, a theme
that emerged repeatedly in the focus groups. This perception reflects the documented tensions
in the region between
young people’s digital empowerment and the precariousness linked to
the structural conditions that guarantee access to verified and reliable information (Dorado,
2024). In the Latin American context, technological access does not always translate into
cri
tical literacy. This leads to re
-
signified uses, where young people employ platforms as tools
for expression, albeit without the appropriate frameworks to assess the quality of content.
Figure 3. Dimension 3. Citizens’ critical reflection on news consumption.
Source: Compiled by the author.
Verification of information and understanding of the concept of MI
L
.
Although this concept
has been established throughout the analysis of the results, it is at this point that it truly comes
into its own. A large proportion of the young people selected were unaware of the definition
of the principle or, conversely, had only a partial understanding of the subject. A minority were
able to outline the main principles and the relationship under consideration in this research.
Following a detailed explanation of the terminology, the participants agreed that education is
the foundation for critical thinking. This point is key when considered alongside the
recommendations of organisations such as UNESCO (Zuazo, 2023), which highlight the need
Source: Compiled by the author
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Verication of information and understanding of the concept of MIL.
Although this concept has been established throughout
the analysis of the results, it is at this point that it truly comes into its own. A large proportion of the young people selected were
unaware of the denition of the principle or, conversely, had only a partial understanding of the subject. A minority were able
to outline the main principles and the relationship under consideration in this research. Following a detailed explanation of the
terminology, the participants agreed that education is the foundation for critical thinking. is point is key when considered
alongside the recommendations of organisations such as UNESCO (Zuazo, 2023), which highlight the need to incorporate MIL
as a cross-cutting theme in training programmes for communicators in Latin America. In countries such as Mexico, Chile and
Uruguay, where signicant inequalities in access to and quality of education persist, the development of media literacy is not
guaranteed, which underpins and reinforces the vulnerability of young people to disinformation.
Following the debate, they themselves recognise the need to introduce a curriculum that incorporates skills for analysing
the content they produce and consume. is call for educational reform emerges consistently across all three countries,
although it is more prominent in Chile and Mexico, whilst in Uruguay it features more moderately in the discourse. e
growing proliferation and presence of digital information, as well as the central role of the media in everyday life, overexposes
young people to an extreme degree. It is therefore essential that they develop critical skills to interpret, evaluate and verify the
information they generate and consume, particularly as future professionals in the communications sector. Furthermore, this
reinforcement will enable them to recognise biases, understand how algorithms work, identify fake news and produce content
from an ethical perspective (Figure 4). e statements collected reinforce the central importance attributed by participants to
media literacy as a strategy, emerging as one of the most consistent discursive themes in the qualitative analysis.
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Figure 4. Dimension 4. Verication of information and understanding of the concept of MIL
to incorporate MIL as a cross
-
cutting theme in training programmes for communicators in
Latin America. In countries such as Mexico, Chile and Uruguay, where significant inequalities
in access to and quality of education persist, the development of media literacy is not
guaranteed, which underpins and reinforces the vulnerability of young people to
disinformation.
Following the debate, they themselves recognise the need to introduce a curriculum that
incorporates skills for analysing the content they produce and consume. This call for
educational reform emerges consistently across all three countries, although it is more
prominent in Chile and Mexico, whilst in Uruguay it features more moderately in the discourse.
The growing proliferation and presence of digital information, as well as the central role of the
media in everyday life, overexposes young people to an extreme degree. It is therefore essential
that they develop critical skills to interpret, evaluate and verify the information they generate
and consume, particularly as future professionals in the communications sector. Furthermore,
this reinforcement will enable them to recognise biases, understand how algorithms work,
identify fake news and produce content from an ethical perspective (Figure 4). The statements
collected reinforce the central importance attributed by participants to media literacy as a
strat
egy, emerging as one of the most consistent discursive themes in the qualitative analysis.
Figure 4. Dimension 4. Verification of information and understanding of the concept of MIL.
Source: Compiled by the author.
3.2. Decalogue of good practices for tackling disinformation and fake news
Source: Compiled by the author
3.2. Decalogue of good practices for tackling disinformation and fake news
ese recommendations aim to prevent the spread of misleading content, but also to help build a society that is better
informed, more critical and more responsible for the content it consumes and/or generates. Journalists play a crucial role
in this regard: they must take the lead in verifying information, educate the public, promote transparency, set an example of
integrity, and identify manipulation.
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Figure 5. Ten-point guide to best practice in tackling disinformation and fake news
Figure 5. Ten
-
point guide to best practice in tackling disinformation and fake news.
.
4. Discussion and conclusions
The concept of MIL has emerged as a crucial element in equipping citizens with the skills
needed to analyse, understand and critically evaluate the information to which they are
constantly exposed (Fernández
-
García, 2017; Authors, 2024). However, this study highlights
the lack of understanding of this term, which has become a widespread problem in society and
increases vulnerability to disinformation and fake news. This implies the need to implement
public policies and strengthen the curriculum in educational contexts, particularly in higher
education, which is the field of focus here (Vélez, 2017). MIL is essential for preparing future
citizens and communication professionals to face the information challenges of the 21st century
Source: Compiled by the author
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4. Discussion and conclusions
e concept of MIL has emerged as a crucial element in equipping citizens with the skills needed to analyse, understand
and critically evaluate the information to which they are constantly exposed (Fernández-García, 2017; Pérez-Rodríguez
et
al.
, 2024). However, this study highlights the lack of understanding of this term, which has become a widespread problem in
society and increases vulnerability to disinformation and fake news. is implies the need to implement public policies and
strengthen the curriculum in educational contexts, particularly in higher education, which is the eld of focus here (Vélez,
2017). MIL is essential for preparing future citizens and communication professionals to face the information challenges of the
21st century (Sádaba-Chalezquer and Salaverría-Aliaga, 2023). Undoubtedly, media literacy education promotes critical and
responsible consumption of information, thereby strengthening a democratic and participatory society capable of identifying
disinformation (Portugal and Aguaded, 2020). However, the results obtained in this study qualify this general statement, since,
although students acknowledge the importance of verication and critical thinking in theory, their everyday information
practices reveal patterns characterised by immediacy, reliance on social media and supercial scanning of headlines. is
divergence between declarative knowledge and actual behaviour reinforces the importance of addressing MIL not only as a
normative framework, but as a competence embedded in students’ real information habits.
In this vein, the study’s recommendations aim not only to integrate MIL into curricula, but also to build collaborative learning
ecosystems which, through community-focused MIL programmes, joint content production and verication projects, and
other initiatives, connect educational institutions –particularly schools of communication and journalism– with the media to
tackle the challenges posed by disinformation. is is particularly relevant in Latin America, where MIL policies are at dierent
stages of development and implementation. In light of the empirical ndings, this proposal takes on particular signicance,
given that participating students tend to prioritise rapid access to information over systematic fact-checking processes. is
nding highlights the need for educational interventions that directly inuence consumption habits.
While analyzing the results, it became clear that participants from all three countries felt they were misinformed about current
aairs, particularly in the eld of politics, due to the vast amount of information available online. According to Cornellá (2013),
this situation is referred to as “infoxication”, dened as the information overload to which individuals are exposed, particularly in
digital contexts. Consequently, society experiences a perception of widespread misinformation, as, rather than delving deeper
into content and verifying its accuracy, many users limit themselves to consuming headlines and disseminating unveried
information (Andrada
et al.
, 2024). In this context, this challenge is central to the training and ethics of new generations of
communicators. It is crucial, as future professionals, to equip them with the necessary skills to ensure that the content
disseminated is veried, thereby promoting responsible consumption. In line with the study’s objectives, these results enable
the identication of an information pattern characterised by fragmented consumption, incidental exposure to news on social
media, and limited verication. is helps to explain the self-perception of disinformation expressed by the study sample.
It should be emphasised that, although this perception was common across the three countries analysed, signicant nuances
were identied. In Mexico, for example, the volume of political content perceived as biased reporting reects a context of
heightened media polarisation. In Uruguay, meanwhile, students reported a higher level of trust in certain traditional media
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outlets, which may be explained by a less concentrated media landscape. Finally, in Chile, concerns emerged regarding the
manipulation of information on social media during recent social protests.
On another note, one of the study’s ndings is the detrimental role played by social media during the Covid-19 pandemic
(Salaverría
et al.
, 2020). is was a period in which, in the words of Eysenbach (2002), an “information epidemic”, also known as
an “infodemic”, took hold. is excessive and uncontrolled spread of information, much of it false, caused panic and confusion
amongst the public in crisis situations. is highlights and reinforces the urgent need to regulate the ow of information in such
contexts to mitigate misinformation. For future communicators, it is essential to understand the power and inuence of digital
platforms in the dissemination of content, as well as the responsibility to ensure high-quality information. is phenomenon
underscores the need for this group not only to master content production, but also to master verication strategies in order to
counter the weaknesses of disinformation and, consequently, fake news. Furthermore, the responses indicate that, in countries
such as Chile and Mexico, the emotional impact resulting, for example, from the infodemic was more intense, as young people
used social media as their primary source of information. In Uruguay, there was a greater tendency to cross-check information
with traditional media. is helped to mitigate the eects of information overload. is contextual dierence must be taken
into account when designing future education policies.
Based on an analysis of the impact of fake news on the public, the ndings show that it has a negative eect on information
consumption and, furthermore, fosters a sense of mistrust towards both traditional and digital media. Social media,
characterised by its immediacy and accessibility, contributes to the spread of this trend. In the eld of communication, this
phenomenon poses a critical challenge to how future professionals must approach the creation, management and distribution
of content in the digital context. is nding is in line with recent Latin American studies (Labarca
et al.
, 2022) which
demonstrate how the rise of disinformation has undermined the credibility of the media and caused citizens to retreat into
closed and homogeneous information environments. is phenomenon, referred to as an “information bubble”, calls for a
rethinking of training strategies from an ethical, critical and inclusive perspective (Bajaña-Tovar, 2021).
Meanwhile, with regard to understanding the concept of disinformation and the consumption of quality news, the ndings
highlight that the immediacy of social media poses a challenge that exacerbates the diculty in distinguishing between
truthful and false content. Undoubtedly, the most popular tool and device amongst young people today is the mobile phone.
All other forms of media are relegated to the background. However, despite choosing this device to produce and consume
information, they also state that there is a signicant “mediamorphosis” of the media. e digitisation of information and the
fragmentation of content generate information overload and create a false sense of knowledge. Furthermore, it undermines
the critical thinking skills of young people, even though they are the future experts in communication. e results show that
young people display a high level of interest in current aairs. At the same time, however, it is emphasised that we must provide
the necessary tools to train future generations of communicators to become content creators and consumers capable of
navigating and reporting on a sea of information in a critical and responsible manner. is need for critical training cannot be
separated from the socio-political contexts in which these young people engage. In Chile, there is a strong link between news
consumption and digital activism; in Mexico, the passive and recreational use of platforms predominates; and in Uruguay,
there is a marked concern for the democratic quality of public debate.
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In line with this line of research and in relation to the previous point –namely, society’s development and critical reection
on news consumption– these younger generations state that they tend to get their news from social media. From their
consumerist perspective and, at the same time, as future communicators, they are aware of the risk of relying on unveried
sources. is indicates that there is still a long way to go before a more critical approach to news consumption is adopted. From
a communication perspective and as future information experts, it is essential to reect on the information habits of these
new generations. ere is a signicant gap between awareness of the risks of misinformation and the adoption of responsible
information consumption habits. ese ndings call for the promotion of an educational approach that helps young people
develop the right skills. It is not merely a question of identifying sources and verifying information, but also of understanding
the mechanisms underlying social media algorithms, which prioritise viral and sensationalist content over the quality of the
information. More specically, the ndings point to the coexistence of hybrid information practices. On the one hand, there
is intensive, daily consumption of content via mobile phones and social media platforms; and, on the other hand, there is
occasional, non-systematic verication of content, mainly when it raises doubts or has a strong emotional impact. is nding
allows for a more nuanced interpretation of young people’s information-seeking habits and provides evidence to guide MIL
interventions that are better aligned with the observed behaviours.
Regarding the study’s limitations, it should be noted that the sample is limited to young students from three universities in
Mexico, Chile and Uruguay, which restricts the possibility of generalising the results to other groups of young people with
dierent academic, socio-economic and cultural backgrounds. erefore, it is recommended that the research be expanded to
include participants from other academic disciplines and more diverse social contexts, as well as incorporating the perspective
of teaching sta and other key stakeholders, such as experts in the eld, to strengthen and validate the proposed ten-point
guide. Furthermore, it would be valuable to compare the ndings with the expected competencies in the training programmes
of Communication and Journalism faculties in the region. In this regard, the possible eect of social desirability should be
considered, given that the study participants may have provided responses aligned with professional expectations. Likewise,
the prior explanation of the MIL concept may have generated reactivity and inuenced their responses.
Finally, regarding the verication of fake news and how the concept of MIL inuences this, it should be emphasised that
one cannot be understood without the other, as they are essential for mitigating the harmful eects of disinformation on
society. Furthermore, the analysis of information consumption habits and the risks associated with unveried sources
highlights the urgent need to educate the public, as well as current and future communicators. us, the ndings regarding
students’ information habits support the relevance of strengthening MIL from an applied perspective, focused not only on
conceptual knowledge but also on changing actual practices regarding access to, selection of, and verication of information.
Consequently, to demonstrate this, a set of ten best practices has been established to serve as the basis for a strategic proposal
to be included in a media education curriculum across all educational levels, but above all in higher education, particularly
within communication and journalism degree programmes.
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5. Acknowledgements and funding
is article has been translated into English by Emily Rookes, whom we would like to thank for her work.
is study was conducted within the scope of Alfamed (Euro-American Interuniversity Network for Research in Media
Competency for the Citizenship), with the support of R&D Project “Research, design and implementation of a curricular
proposal for teacher training in media literacy in the Euro-American context” of the Call for Knowledge Generation Projects
2023 (code PID2023-146288NB-I00), funded by MICIU (AEI) 10.13039/501100011033 and by ERDF (EU).
6. Specic contributions of each author
First name and surname
Concept and design of the projectPatricia de Casas Moreno
Methodology
Patricia de Casas Moreno and
Elizabeth G. Rojas Estrada
Data collection and analysis
Patricia de Casas Moreno,
Elizabeth G. Rojas Estrada and Ignacio Aguaded
Discussion and conclusions
Patricia de Casas Moreno and
Elizabeth G. Rojas Estrada
Drafting, formatting, proofreading and approval of versions
Patricia de Casas Moreno,
Elizabeth G. Rojas Estrada and Ignacio Aguaded
7. Conict of interests
e authors declare that they have no conicts of interest
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